. 2017 Sep 14;75(10):798–829. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nux037

Table 3.

Sensory evaluation of biofortified crops by consumers in low- and middle-income countries

Reference	Country	Study Population	Method and Study Design	Results	Conclusion
Sweet potato
Tomlins et al. (2007)¹⁹	Tanzania	Consumers: Schoolchildren, M + F: 5–18 y; n = 94 Mothers: 15–45 y; n = 59	Sensory attributes study (100-mm unstructured scale, interviews, and 7-point hedonic facial scale) for color, pumpkin flavor, texture, starchiness, and sweet taste of 30–50 g of cooked OFSP and PFSP	Mothers liked OFSP better than PFSP, but children liked both. Clusters with different preferences for different characteristics were observed	New cultivars should be screened; mothers have probably more influence on introduction than children
Low et al. (2008)³⁷	Mozambique	Consumers: Market shoppers; n = 112	Structured interview and ranking of key characteristics of bread buns with 38% of white wheat flour replaced by boiled and mashed OFSP (golden bread)	Preference for golden bread because heavier texture, superior taste, and attractive golden appearance. With 47 consumers who purchased golden bread, preference was 98% because of color, 85% because of taste, and 78% because of texture	Golden bread buns are well accepted by consumers when sold at a similar price as white flour bread buns
Sivaramane et al. (2008)⁴⁵	India	Consumers: Residents of rural area of Orissa State, 35% F, 26–40 y; n = 100	Sensory attributes study (9-point hedonic scale, nominal [0, 1] scale) for sweetness, color, texture, aroma, general appearance of 80 g of cofermented boiled OFSP puree (16%) and cow’s milk with curd culture	Mean scores on sensory attributes on average were all > 7; consumers who find the curd acceptable had higher scores on color and texture than nonaccepters	Texture and color significantly and positively influenced consumer acceptability
Chowdhury et al. (2011)⁴³	Uganda	Consumers: Rural and urban residents; n = 467	Sensory attribute study (9-point hedonic scale) for taste, appearance, and overall acceptability of 4 varieties of cooked SP: white SP, orange SP, deep orange SP, and yellow SP	52% of the participants preferred the deep orange SP, 26% the yellow SP, 13% the orange SP, and 9% the white SP	Deep orange SP is preferred over yellow, orange, and white SP
Rangel et al. (2011)²¹	Brazil	Consumers: Schoolchildren, 10–12 y; n = 100	Sensory attributes study (5-point facial hedonic scale mixed scale) for liking and numeric scale (1–10) for grading and preference of 50 g of cake (conventional vs 40% SP flour)	Overall acceptability was good and scale ranking was high for both cakes. No difference in preference found	Cakes with SP flour are acceptable and are an important strategy to provide provitamin A
Romero et al. (2011)¹³	Nicaragua	Consumers: Schoolchildren, mean age: 11 y; n = 290 (children) n = 33 (mothers)	Sensory attributes study (5-point facial hedonic scale) of 43 g of cake made with OFSP (24%), with and without leaf pulp (4%)	Acceptability was good with no difference between cakes, preference was similar between cakes	Both cakes were well liked. Inclusion of SP in preparation of the cakes is feasible
Tomlins et al. (2012)³⁵	Uganda	Consumers: Semitrained panel; n = 10	Sensory attributes study (100-mm unstructured scale) for color, taste, flavor, texture, odor, and appearance of 11 varieties of cooked SP (white, yellow, purple, orange)	Color was correlated with carotenoid concentration in a logarithmic way. Carotenoid content correlated with dry matter and visual, odor, and textural characteristics. Cultivars differed widely regarding sensory characteristics	The logarithmic relationship between color and carotenoid concentration might result in orange varieties that are not necessarily high in carotenoids being preferred
Laurie et al. (2012)¹⁴	South Africa	Producers and consumers: Local farmer groups and schoolchildren, > 10 y; n = 950	Sensory attributes study (5-point facial hedonic scale with facial expressions) for taste and yes/no for color, will to purchase and will to prepare OFSP juice, chips, doughnuts, and cooked leaves	Taste was liked best for doughnuts, followed by chips, leaves, and juice. The attributes color and willingness to buy and prepare the product scored high by > 80% of participants	All products were acceptable; preparation with deep frying was especially highly liked
Nguyen-Orca et al. (2014)²⁷	Philippines	Consumers: University students; n = 50	Sensory attributes study (7-point hedonic scale) for color, consistency, aroma, flavor, mouth feel, and general acceptability of a complementary food blend from 4 varieties of SP (cream, yellow, orange, and purple) with maize (55:45 ratio)	Orange SP was rated highest for color; both yellow and orange were rated highest for mouth feel, whereas consistency, aroma, and taste did not differ between samples. Overall, yellow (score: 5.6) and orange (score: 5.4) SP were liked over cream (score: 5.1) and purple SP (score: 4.5)	Yellow and orange SP blends, both high in provitamin A, were well accepted
Laurie et al. (2013)¹⁵	South Africa	Consumers: Adult panel; n = 8 Schoolchildren, 50% F; n = 168 Adults, 50% F; n = 48	Sensory attributes study (5-point facial hedonic scale) for acceptability of color, acceptability of overall eating quality, as well as laboratory nutrient analysis, color and texture outcome for 9 orange-fleshed and 3 cream-fleshed cooked SP varieties	Most accepted varieties were associated with sweet flavor, dry mass, and maltose content, and least accepted varieties with wateriness. Acceptability correlated with maltose content, dry mass, and sweet flavor	Varieties with more dry mass are more acceptable
Fetuga et al. (2014)²⁸	Nigeria	Consumers: University students; n = 100	Sensory attribute study (9-point hedonic scale) for overall acceptability of amala prepared from 3 SP varieties (2 yellow and 1 orange) with different pretreatment (parboiling/soaking) and drying methods	Amala prepared from yellow varieties were scored high (7.3–7.7) whereas orange variety scored low (3.3–3.8). Parboiling scored higher compared with soaking. Acceptability significantly (negatively) correlated with ash, fiber, yellowness, water solubility, sugars, and viscosity peak time	Yellow SP was most acceptable for preparation of amala, suggesting that variety was a key factor
Olapade et al. (2014)⁴⁶	Nigeria	Consumers: n = 30	Sensory attributes study (9-point hedonic scale) for acceptability of appearance, taste, mouth feel, and overall acceptability of crunchy snacks made of flour of cream SP and yellow SP with 0%, 30%, and 50% maize flour	Addition of maize flour enhanced acceptance of both SP varieties. 70% cream SP scored highest together with 50% yellow SP. 100% SP was scored lowest for both SP	A mix of yellow SP with maize flour results in a more acceptable snack than a mix of cream SP with maize flour
Trejo-González et al. (2014)⁴⁴	Mexico	Consumers: Adults; n = 38	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic scale) for crumb, crust color, firmness, and porosity; paired preference test with wheat bread; flour was replaced by various proportions of violet and orange SP flour (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%)	All sensory attributes (except crust color) were significantly different between control breads and bread with 15%–20% SP flour	Substitution of wheat flour with 5%–10% SP flour yielded acceptable dough and bread
Tomlins et al. (personal communication, 2016)	Uganda	Consumers: Schoolchildren, 5–12 y; n = 120	Sensory attributes study (7-point hedonic modified scale) for appearance, odor, taste, and texture of cooked white, yellow, and orange SP	Overall acceptance was good: 100% acceptance of orange variety and 71% preferred orange over white. Nutrition information was significant predictor of acceptance; repetition of nutrition information or repeated exposure was not	OFSP is acceptable for children. Providing nutrition information increases acceptance
Tomlins et al. (personal communication, 2016)	Uganda	Consumers: Rural and urban households, mean age: 26 y; n = 475	Sensory attributes study (9-point hedonic scale) for sensory attributes of appearance, odor, taste, and texture of 30–50 g of 4 different cooked varieties of SP (white to orange)	Overall acceptance was good with mean scores > 6. The deep orange variety was acceptable to 82% and liked the most, followed by yellow, orange, and white. 18% of participants found orange SP unacceptable	The visible trait of orange SP can be used to advertise, but for the 18% dislikers other interventions are needed
Maize
Stevens and Winter-Nelson (2008)⁴⁹	Mozambique	Consumers: Market shoppers, 14–70 y, 69% F; n = 201	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic scale) for taste, appearance, texture, and aroma, and overall score of porridge (nsima) from milled orange and white near-isogenic lines of maize and local maize	Most participants preferred taste, texture, and appearance of local white maize nsima compared with other varieties. 33% rated taste of orange maize nsima as very good compared with 55% of local white maize Orange scored higher on appearance, and aroma of orange was preferred over white varieties	Color is not a particular factor for acceptance
De Groote et al. (2010)⁵⁰	Ghana	Consumers: Household heads and spouses, 18–90 y; n = 703	Sensory attribute study (5-point hedonic scale) for appearance, aroma, texture, taste, and overall appreciation of kenkey (steamed fermented maize dough) from white, yellow, and orange maize varieties	Average scores were all > 3. In the Ashanti Region, white maize received the highest score (followed by yellow and orange), whereas yellow maize (followed by orange and white) received the highest score in Central and Eastern Regions	Preference for maize color was regional and is not regarded as an obstacle in the major maize areas of Ghana
Pillay et al. (2011)¹⁶	South Africa	Consumers: Rural school children and parents, 3–55 y; n = 212	Sensory attributes study (5-point facial hedonic scale) for texture, aroma, and flavor; and paired preference test with 3 types of porridge made from yellow maize and white maize	Preschool children, secondary school children, and adults preferred yellow maize, but primary school children were indifferent. Acceptability was most influenced by texture and flavor	Yellow maize has potential but only when combined with nutrition education, reduced market price, more availability, and improved sensory properties
Khumalo et al. (2011)⁵¹	South Africa	Consumers: Rural households in Limpopo Province > 18 y; 100% F n = 48	Sensory attributes study (4-point facial hedonic scale) for aroma, color, consistency, hand feel, grittiness (mouth), and taste with maize porridge prepared from white sifted fortified and unfortified maize meal, hammer mill white and yellow maize meal with or without fiber, and white super maize meal	Scores for any of the sensory attributes did not differ between white and yellow maize with or without fiber, but maize without fiber (dehulled) was preferred. Overall, the whiter and finer the product, the more it was liked	Fine yellow maize was well accepted, although the super refined white maize was most preferred
Govender et al. (2014)⁵²	South Africa	Consumers: Infant caregivers 16–65 y, 100% F; n = 60	Sensory attribute study (5-point facial hedonic scale) for taste, texture, aroma, color, and overall acceptability of soft porridge made from white maize and 2 yellow provitamin A–biofortified varieties (medium and deep orange)	No significant difference between scores for the different sensory attributes. Outcome was not influenced by age	No difference in sensory acceptability of the white maize and provitamin A–biofortified maize
Awobusuyi et al. (2015)⁵³	South Africa	Consumers: Rural farmers, 30–51 y, M + F; n = 54	Sensory attribute study (9-point hedonic rating scale) for aroma, mouth feel, taste, color, and overall acceptability of amahewu, a fermented nonalcoholic maize-based beverage made from white maize or provitamin A–biofortified maize	No significant differences in mean scores between amahewu prepared from white or provitamin A maize for color, taste, and aroma. Overall acceptability was significantly higher for provitamin A maize	Acceptability of amahewu prepared from provitamin A– biofortified maize is slightly higher than that prepared from white maize
Alamu et al. (2015)³⁴	Nigeria	Consumers: Trained panel; n = 10	Sensory attributes study (9-point hedonic rating scale) for color, aroma, chewiness, taste, and appearance for boiled fresh orange maize of 2 hybrids with or without husk at 3 different maturation stages or 20, 27, and 34 d after pollination	Overall the hybrids were liked with average scores of 6.8. There was little difference between maize with or without husk, but optimum harvest time was 20 d after pollination	Orange maize hybrids are acceptable for fresh consumption
Beans
Leyva-Martínez et al. (2010)⁴⁷	Cuba	Producers and consumers: Adults, 25–65 y; n = 80	Sensory attributes study (4-point facial hedonic scale) for consistency, taste, and texture and triangle discrimination test and preference test for bean soup made with regular bean and biofortified (iron) beans	63% of participants were able to discriminate the biofortified beans from regular beans. Overall acceptability was good for both varieties; no preference was found	The population liked the improved variety. It has the potential to be grown and consumed and to prevent iron deficiency
Tofiño et al. (2011)¹⁸	Colombia	Consumers: Adults and children; n = 273	Agronomic acceptance and sensory attributes study (children: 4-point hedonic facial scale; adults: 5-point hedonic scale) for consistency of the soup, color, taste, smell, and texture; and discriminatory testing of cooked biofortified (iron) beans and control beans	Agronomic performance of biofortified varieties is better. Overall acceptability in children and adults was good. In adults, biofortified bean scored higher. 88% of participants preferred biofortified beans. 68% of participants were able to differentiate	Biofortified bean SMN8 is well liked and has the potential to become the preferred type of bean for consumption and growing
Centeno et al. (2011)⁴⁸	Nicaragua	Producers and consumers: Adults, 16–77 y; n = 76	Sensory attributes study (4-point facial hedonic scale) for sensory attributes of texture, smell, taste, and color and general acceptance of 3 biofortified beans and 1 control bean	Overall acceptability of beans was good. No preference was found, but control bean scored highest	Because the acceptability was similar for the beans, the improved varieties should be introduced to farmers to understand adoption
Cabal et al. (2014)¹⁷	Colombia	Consumers: Children, 7–11 y	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic scale) for acceptability of appearance, color, aroma, flavor, softness, resistance, hydration ability, and perception of granules of cookies made of 100% wheat (control); 15% biofortified bean, 15% cassava, 70% wheat; and 20% biofortified bean, 15% cassava, 65% wheat	Both biofortified cookies scored higher in aroma, flavor, resistance, hydration ability, and perception of granules than the control cookie	Biofortified bean flour can be used as a substitute for wheat flour to a certain percentage without losing sensory acceptance
Oparinde et al. (2015)⁴¹	Rwanda	Consumers: Household members, > 18 y; n = 572	Sensory attributes study (7-point hedonic scale) for color, bean size, taste, cooking time, storage quality, and ease of breaking after 7 days of home-use of RIB, WIB, and a local variety (Mutiki)	Overall, RIB were more liked (6.4–6.7) than the local variety (6.0–6.2) and the WIB (5.1–5.4), except for cooking time, for which WIB scored better. Scores for RIB were higher compared with control, whereas for WIB this difference was absent	RIB were superior over the local variety and WIB in sensory evaluation, even without information
Pérez et al. (2015)⁴²	Guatemala	Consumers: Households in the northwest, mean age: 35 y, M + F; n = 360	Sensory attributes study (7-point hedonic scale) for size, taste, cooking time, cooked thickness, and toughness after home testing with nutrition information and 3 times repeated nutrition information of control and biofortified beans	Sensory attributes were scored positive except for bean toughness. Nutrition information resulted in a higher score for the iron bean for raw bean size and cooked bean toughness, but repeating did not matter	The high-iron bean variety is liked in a similar way to the traditional bean
Carrillo-Centeno and Sánchez-Ruiz (2014)⁴⁰	Nicaragua	Producers and consumers: Adults, mean age: 45 y, 30% F; n = 91	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic facial scale) for color, aroma, flavor, and texture, and preference test of 20 g of raw and cooked beans (INTA Ferroso [iron] and INTA Norte [regular])	No difference in acceptability between the 2 varieties. Regular bean was preferred for color, iron bean for shape and size	Because acceptability was good, the iron bean should be introduced and promoted for growing and consumption
Murekezi et al. (personal communication, 2016)	Rwanda	Producers and consumers: Rural and urban households near bean market sites, 29–59 y; n = 1809	Sensory attributes study (7-point hedonic scale) for attributes of 4 different types of cooked biofortified beans; multinomial probit and logit models with 4 different types of sharing nutritional information and a control group with no information sharing	Overall sensory scores of all beans were good. Various consumer segments exist. In 2 sites, providing nutrition information increased the probability of shifting consumers to the iron-bean-likers segment	The results can be used for targeting interventions in various parts of and consumer segments in Rwanda
Oparinde et al. (personal communication, 2016)	Rwanda	Consumers: Rural households and urban visitors of markets, mean age: 43 y; n = 809	Sensory attributes (7-point hedonic scale) for raw bean color, raw bean size, cooked bean size, taste, cooking time, and overall acceptability of raw and cooked beans of control and 2 biofortified (IB1 and IB2) beans and as intervention various types of nutrition information and endorsement	Overall acceptability was good (score > 4) in both rural and urban sites. Between the 2 biofortified varieties, raw bean size and cooked bean size scored differently. IB2 was liked more, with no difference regarding endorsement or length of nutritional information. Cooking time of the local variety was liked most	Biofortified beans were acceptable, and a program to promote these beans can use a short version of nutritional information
Rice
De Bree (2009)³⁸	China	Consumers: Rural women in Chuzhou District, mean age: 34 y; n = 40	Triangle discrimination and preference test of uncooked grains of zinc-biofortified rice, zinc-fortified extruded rice, and normal rice. Focus group discussions	Participants were able to perceive a difference between the 3 rice types (P < 0.01). The odd sample was correctly chosen in 84% of control vs biofortified, 92% of biofortified vs extruded fortified, and 55% of control vs extruded fortified. Control and zinc-fortified rice were preferred over zinc-biofortified rice	Biofortified rice was the least preferred. Acceptance can be increased when rice kernels are large and whole, the government endorses the rice, and it can be locally grown
Montecinos et al. (2011)⁵⁴	Nicaragua	Consumers: Household heads; mean age: 41 y; n = 203	Sensory attribute study (4-point hedonic scale) for texture, smell, taste, color, and overall acceptability of cooked Azucena, a traditional landrace rice with elevated iron and zinc levels compared with a local rice variety	The scores for the local variety were slightly higher than for Azucena (P < 0.05) for texture, smell, taste, and color. 56% of consumers preferred the local variety over Azucena	Azucena was not readily accepted by the study population
Vergara et al. (2011)³⁹	Panama	Consumers: Poor rural communities, 18–50 y; n = 90	Discrimination test with 30 g of cooked control and iron-biofortified rice	Only 30 of the 90 answers were correct, and therefore no significant difference between the 2 types of rice was found	Biofortified rice has potential and should be introduced in other communities and the agro-industry
Padrón et al. (2011)²⁶	Cuba	Consumers: Pregnant women (2nd and 3rd trimester), 15–55 y; n = 98	Sensory attributes study (4-point facial hedonic scale) for color, texture, taste, and smell and preference test with 20 g of cooked iron-biofortified rice and control rice	> 80% of the respondents liked or really liked the biofortified rice. The biofortified rice was preferred (73%) over control	The biofortified rice variety should be introduced in Cuba because it can possibly help in the prevention of anemia and zinc deficiency
Cassava
Talsma et al. (2013)²⁰	Kenya	Consumers: Caretakers, 97% F, mean age: 32 y; n = 30 School children, 63% F, 6–12 y; n = 30	Preference test and blinded triangle discrimination test with boiled and mashed yellow and white cassava	Caretakers and children were able to discriminate between yellow and white cassava; > 70% preferred yellow cassava. Characteristics of yellow cassava: attractive color, soft texture, sweet taste	Yellow cassava is acceptable to schoolchildren and their caretakers
Njoku et al. (2014)⁵⁶	Nigeria	Producers and consumers: Adults in the southeast, > 20 y; n = 30	Sensory attributes study (4-point hedonic scale) for color, taste, texture, mealiness, and appearance of eba made of gari from 3 yellow cassava varieties and 1 white cassava variety mixed with palm oil	Yellow cassava was preferred over white because of the color, premium price, nutritional value, and texture	Yellow cassava can be adopted by farmers if made available
Awoyale et al. (2015)³⁶	Nigeria	Consumers: Trained panel, adults; n = 12	Sensory attributes study (9-point hedonic scale) for acceptability of mouth feel, taste, color, flavor, appearance, and of a gruel made of different mixtures of yellow cassava starch–based custard powder (90%–98%) with egg powder (2%–10%) measured at 0, 6, 12, 18, and 24 wk of storage	Blend ratios and storage conditions affected the acceptance. At 24 wk, color and taste were disliked, which might be because of increase in moisture during storage	Yellow cassava custard can be stored for 24 wk and still be acceptable
Oparinde et al. (2014)⁵⁵	Nigeria	Consumers: Rural cassava consumers, 65% M > 18 y; n = 671	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic scale) for color, feel, taste, and drinking quality of gari and color and feeling for eba made from white, light yellow, and deep yellow cassava, with and without prior information	Mean scores were > 3 and different across product types. In Imo State, white cassava scored highest, followed by deep yellow and light yellow. In Oyo State, light yellow cassava rated highest, whereas deep yellow was rated highest in color and feel. There is no effect of information on liking	Consumers rated the light yellow and deep yellow cassava differentially on all sensory attributes. Study area was important factor for preference, but the deep yellow was never preferred
Pearl millet
Birol et al. (2015)⁵⁷	India	Consumers: Rural consumers, M + F, mean age: 40 y; n = 452	Sensory attributes study (5-point hedonic scale) for grain color/size, and color, taste, layers, and ease of breaking of bhakri (thick flatbread) made of HIPM or LPM	Overall, HIPM was rated higher (4.2–4.9) for all attributes compared with LPM (3.5–4.2). Information (groups B and C) increased the scores for HIPM and decreased scores for LPM, except for grain color, which remained the same	Consumers evaluate HIPM more favorably than LPM varieties

Abbreviations: F, female; HIPM, high-iron pearl millet; IB1, iron bean 1; IB2, iron bean 2;; LPM, local pearl millet; M, male; OFSP, orange-fleshed sweet potato; PFSP, purple-fleshed sweet potato; RIB, iron biofortified red bean; SP, sweet potato; WIB, iron biofortified white bean.