Table 1.
Targeting regions of PMOs that are effective against RNA viruses.
| Polarity of RNA genome | Virus order/family | Virus | PMO targeting region | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Positive-sense RNA virus | Picornavirales | Coxsackievirus B2 and B3, | IRES in 5′ terminal end of genome | Yuan et al., 2006; Stone et al., 2008 |
| Poliovirus type 1 | IRES in 5′ terminal end of genome | Stone et al., 2008 | ||
| Enterovirus 71 | IRES in 5′ terminal end of genome, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | Tan et al., 2014 | ||
| Foot-and-mouth disease virus | 5′ portion of the IRES, Translation initiation codon region | Vagnozzi et al., 2007 | ||
| Nidovirales | Mouse hepatitis virus | 5′ terminus of the genomic RNA | Burrer et al., 2007 | |
| SARS-Coronavirus | Transcription-regulatory sequence (TRS) in the 5′ UTR | Neuman et al., 2005 | ||
| Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) | 5′ UTR of the PRRSV genome | Patel et al., 2008; Han et al., 2009; Opriessnig et al., 2011 | ||
| Equine arteritis virus (EAV) | 5′ UTR of EAV genome | van den Born et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2010 | ||
| Flaviviridae | West Nile virus | 5′ and 3′ termini of genome | Deas et al., 2005, 2007 | |
| Dengue virus | 5′ and 3′ termini of the genome, 3′ stem-loop | Kinney et al., 2005; Holden et al., 2006; Stein et al., 2008 | ||
| Japanese encephalitis virus | 5′ and 3′ UTR of genome | Anantpadma et al., 2010; Nazmi et al., 2010 | ||
| Chikungunya virus | ORF1 AUG region | Lam et al., 2015 | ||
| Togaviridae | Sindbis virus | 5′ terminal end and AUG translation start site regions | Paessler et al., 2008 | |
| Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus | 5′ terminal end and AUG translation start site regions | Paessler et al., 2008 | ||
| Caliciviridae | Noroviruses | AUG region of ORF1 near the 5′ end of the genome | Bok et al., 2008 | |
| Hepeviridae | Hepatitis E virus | 5′ UTR and translation initiation start region of ORF1, 3′ UTR, 5′ terminus of antisense HEV RNA | Nan et al., 2015 | |
| Negative sense RNA virus | Filoviridae | Ebola virus | Translation initiation codon region of VP24 and VP35 | Enterlein et al., 2006; Warfield et al., 2006; Iversen et al., 2012 |
| Marburg virus | Translation initiation codon region of VP24 and VP35 | Iversen et al., 2012 | ||
| Pneumoviridae | Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) | 5′ terminus and the translation start-site region of RSV L mRNA | Lai et al., 2008 | |
| Paramyxoviridae | Measles virus | Translation initiation codon region of the nucleocapsid protein mRNA | Sleeman et al., 2009 | |
| Orthomyxoviridae | Influenza A virus, | Translation initiation codon regions of polymerase subunit PB1 mRNA and NP mRNA, 3′ end of NP viral genome RNA | Gabriel et al., 2008; Lupfer et al., 2008 | |
| Arenaviridae | Junín virus, Tacaribe virus, Pichinde virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, | 5′ termini of both genomic segments across different arenaviruses | Neuman et al., 2011 | |