Ethnobotanical investigation on medicinal plants in Algoz area (South Kordofan), Sudan

Abstract

Background

The inhabitants of western Sudan use traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments due to lack of medical doctors and unaffordable prices of pharmaceutical products. The present study is the first documentation of the traditional plant knowledge on medicinal uses of plants by healers in Algoz (South Kordofan), Sudan.

Method

Ethnobotanical data were collected over a period from March to November 2015 using semi-structured interviews with 30 healers (24 male and 6 female) living in the investigated area. Quantitative indices such as use categories, use value (UV) and informant consensus factor (ICF) were intended to evaluate the importance of medicinal plant species.

Results

A total of 94 medicinal plants, which belong to 45 families and 81 genera, were recorded in the study area. The most represented families are Leguminosae with 20 species followed by Combretaceae (6 species), Rubiaceae (5 species) and Asteraceae (4 species). The reported species were belonging to herbs (43%), trees (28%), shrubs (22%), climbers (4%) and parasites (3%). Root and stem (21% each) were the most plant parts used. A majority of remedies are administered orally (67%) where infusion (36%) and maceration (32%) are the most used methods. The highest ICF (0.87) was reported for poisonous animal bites followed by urinary system diseases (0.89), blood system disorders (0.88) and gynaecological diseases (0.87). Anastatica hierochuntica, Ctenolepis cerasiformis, Echinops longifolius, Cleome gynandra, Maerua pseudopetalosa, Martynia annua, Oldenlandia uniflora, Opuntia ficus-indica, Solanum dubium, Sonchus cornutus, Tribulus terrestris and Drimia maritima were reported for the first time in this study.

Conclusion

The number of medicinal plants reported in this paper reflects evidence that Algoz area had a high diversity of medicinal plants which will continue to play an important role in the healthcare system in the study area.

Background

In 2011, Sudan split into two countries with one third of the country being proclaimed a new state named “Republic of South Sudan” leaving behind the remaining area retaining the older name “the Republic of Sudan” [1]. In its former integral state, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the tenth in the world, boasting an area of 2.5 million square kilometers which spanned diverse terrains and climatic zones [1]. This did bear directly on the wide diversity of vegetation, from those in the desert and semi-desert in the north through the equatorial in the central part to the extreme of the humid equatorial in the south. Such prevailing conditions favoured diverse vegetation consisting of 3137 documented species of flowering plants belonging to 170 families and 1280 genera, 15% of which are endemic [2]. A large number of these plants have a vital contribution to human health care needs throughout the country. Medicinal and aromatic plants and their derivatives represent an integral part of life in Sudan. Communities in different regions of Sudan use traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments due to lack of medical doctors and unaffordable prices of pharmaceutical products beside their faith on the medicinal values of traditional medicine [3]. It has been estimated that only 11% of the population has access to formal health care [1].

The geographical position of Sudan represents a multicultural melting pot of diverse traditional knowledge over large distances and facilitated the exchange of knowledge about medicinal plants with other countries from Africa to Middle East and Asia [4].

Despite the varied flora and socio-cultural diversity in Sudan, there is a far-reaching lack of written information on the traditional use of medicinal plants [4]. So, documentation of plants used as traditional medicines in Sudan is warranted. The aim of this study was to investigate the traditional plant knowledge on medicinal uses of plants by local healers in Algoz area (South Kordofan), Sudan.

Methods

Study area

Algoz area is situated in the northern part of South Kordofan state, and its borders are Northern Kordofan state from the north and northeast, West Kordofan state from the northwest, Dellang locality from the south and Habella locality from the southeast direction (Fig. 1). It is located between latitudes 12°–12° 30 N and longitudes 29° 48–300 E and 622 m above sea level, with a total area of 35,000 km². Short grass and short scattered trees prevail. The area is associated with exposed rocks crossing the central Sudan forming a surface water divide. The White Nile which is the main tributary of the River Nile bounds the hydrologic system to the east, while the highlands of Kordofan Plateau and the Nuba Mountains bound it to the west and the south respectively. Khor Abu Habil is a major seasonal wadi that crosses the study area and flows from the west to the east. The wadi disappears into the sand dunes a few kilometers before reaching the White Nile. The climate in the area is semi-arid with long hot summers (March–September) and short mild winters (December–February). Seasonal rainfall occurs only during summer (June–September) and varies between 200 mm/year in the north and 450 mm/year in the south [5].

Fig. 1.

a Sudan map showing the South Kordofan State (red) and b Algoz locality (red)

Algoz area has a multi-population with tribes as Dar Shungool, Gaboosh, Dar Bati, Albargo, Albarno, Flata and some Arabic nomads. They are working mainly in agriculture, animal grazing and trade [6].

Data collection and plant identification

Ethnobotanical data were collected from March to November 2015. Information about the medicinal use of plants was collected by carrying out semi-structured interviews with 30 healers (24 male and 6 female) living in the investigated area. The questionnaire was designed to collect data on (i) local names of the plants, (ii) ailments treated by the plant, (iii) plant parts used, (iv) condition of the plant material (dried or fresh) and (v) modes of preparation and administration. Some social factors like the name, age, occupation and education level of the interviewed person were also recorded. Also, the geographic locality and date of the interview were recorded. Plant specimens were collected for taxonomic identification using keys of written floras such as Broun and Massey [7], Andrews [8–11], Ross [12], Hutchinson and Dalziel [13], Maydell [14] and Elamin [15]. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Herbarium of Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, National Centre for Research, Sudan (MAPTMR-H). The botanical names and plant families are given according to the standards of the plant list (www.ipni.org/).

Ethnobotanical data analysis

Data analysis was carried out by using both the classical ethnobotanical systematic investigation and a numerical quantitative approach in order to evaluate the importance of the mentioned plant species in the investigated area. The quantitative study was carried out by calculating the following ethnobotanical indices:

Use categories

The medicinal plant uses were classified into categories following the standard developed by Cook [16]. Each time a plant was mentioned as “used” was considered as one “use report”. If one informant used a plant to treat more than one disease in the same category, it was considered as a single use report [17].

Use value (UV)

The relative importance was calculated employing the use value [18], a quantitative measure for the relative importance of species known locally:

$$\mathrm{UV}=\frac{\sum U}{n}$$

where U_i is the number of use reports cited by each informant for a given species and n refers to the total number of informants.

Use values are high when there are many use reports for a plant, implying that the plant is important, and approach zero (0) when there are few reports related to its use. The use value, however, does not distinguish whether a plant is used for single or multiple purposes.

Informant consensus factor

To test homogeneity of knowledge, the informant consensus factor was used [19]:

$$\mathrm{ICF}=\frac{N_{\mathrm{ur}}-N_{\mathrm{t}}}{\left(N_{\mathrm{ur}}-1\right)}$$

where N_ur refers to the number of use reports for a particular use category and N_t refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. Informant consensus factor (ICF) values are low (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or if there is no exchange of information about their use among informants and approach one (1) when there is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if information is exchanged between informants [20].

Results

Medicinal plant diversity

A total of 94 medicinal plants, which belong to 45 families and 81 genera, were recorded in the study area. Results provide the following information for each species: scientific name, botanical family, local common name, plant habitat, plant part used, disease treated, route of administration and use value (Table 1). The most represented families are Leguminosae with 20 species followed by Combretaceae (6 species), Rubiaceae (5 species), Asteraceae (4 species), Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Tiliaceae and Zygophyllaceae (3 species each), Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Brassicaceae, Burseraceae, Cleomaceae, Capparaceae, Malvaceae and Meliaceae (2 species each), and other families were represented with one species each. This dominance of Leguminosae plants is a characteristic of the Sudan flora. The most commonly used species is Sarcocephalus latifolius with a UV of 2.07 followed by Guiera senegalensis with a UV of 1.87, Hydnora abyssinica with a UV of 1.83 and Geigeria alata with a UV of 1.67 respectively. Plants that treat three ailments and more (86%) represent the majority, followed by plants that treat single ailments (8%) and those that treat two ailments (6%) respectively.

Table 1.

Ethnomedicinal plants used in the Algoz region (South Kordofan)/western Sudan

Plant name/family/voucher no.	Local name	Growth habit	Part used	Ailment treated	Mode of administration	UV
Abrus precatorius L., Leguminosae, G/106/83	Habat alaroose	Climber	Seed	Spleen problems	Infusion	0.06
Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens (Schum. & Thonn.) Roberty, Leguminosae, G/56/83	Garad	Tree	Fruit	Stomachache	Powder mixed with ajeen and drunk	0.93
				Cold and flu	Smoke fumigant
				Wounds	Powder mixed with bee wax
Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf., Leguminosae, O/49/78	Laoat	Shrub	Stem	Back pain	Roasted twigs put on the back	1.00
			Leaf	Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings
			Root	Snake bite	Fresh crushed roots rubbed on the place of bite
				Toothache	Paste with atroon
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd., Leguminosae, G/110/83	Kitir abied	Tree	Gum	Haematuria	Infusion	0.60
				Toothache	Filling tooth cavity with gum powder
Acacia seyal Delile, Leguminosae, M/21/76	Talih	Tree	Heart wood	Rheumatic pain	Smoke fumigant	0.53
Acanthorrhinum ramosissimum (Coss. & Durieu) Rothm., Plantaginaceae, W/14/95	Shagart almassas	Herb	Aerial part	Evil eye	Smoke fumigant	0.40
Adansonia digitata L., Malvaceae, W/20/95	Tabaldi/fruit gongolaise	Tree	Fruit	Giardiasis	Decoction of the mesocarp	0.70
				Stomachache	Decoction of the mesocarp
Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Leguminosae, K/11/96	Um takarny/gerfadud	Tree	Bark	Worm expulsion	Infusion	0.33
			Leaf	Wounds	Powder sprinkled in wound
				Stomachache	Infusion
				Jaundice	Infusion
Allium sativum L, Amaryllidaceae, Cultivated	Toom	Herb	Bulb	Haemorrhoids	Mixed with Zingiber officinale rhizome and applied to the anus	0.07
Anastatica hierochuntica L., Brassicaceae, Purchsed	Kaf maryam	Herb	Aerial part	Postpartum	Maceration or infusion	0.37
Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr., Combretaceae, W/1/97	Sahab	Tree	Bark	Toothache	Filling tooth cavity with powder	0.37
				Jaundice	Maceration or infusion
				Malaria	Maceration or infusion
Anticharis senegalensis (Walp.) Bhandari, Scrophulariaceae, W/15/94	Shagarat alwaram	Herb	Aerial part	Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings	0.03
Arachis hypogaea L., Leguminosae, Cultivated	Foul sodany	Herb	Seed	Bilharzia	Maceration	0.033
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam., Aristolochiaceae, G/7/84	Um galagil	Herb	Aerial part	Malaria	Infusion	0.47
				Ear infection	Smoke fumigant
				Headache	Infusion
Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Meliaceae, W/95/94	Neem	Tree	Leaf and wood	Rheumatic pain	Maceration and taken as bath	0.43
				Malaria	Maceration or infusion
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, Zygophyllaceae, G/30/83	Laloub	Tree	Fruit pulp	Diabetes	Infusion	1.03
				Hypertension	Infusion
				Bilharzia	Infusion
				Jaundice	Infusion
Bauhinia reticulata DC., Leguminosae, M/50/85	Khroob	Tree	Fruit	Hypertension	Maceration	0.57
			Bark	Jaundice	Infusion
				Wounds	Powder sprinkle in wound
Bergia suffruticosa (Delile) Fenzl, Elatinaceae, W/10/06	Shagarat almoya	Herb	Aerial part	Eczema	Powder rubbed locally	0.09
Blepharis linariifolia Pers., Acanthaceae, MA/38/77	Bagail	Herb	Aerial part	Kidney disorders	Maceration	0.87
				Diabetes	Maceration or infusion
				Wounds	Powder sprinkled in wound
				Hypertension	Maceration or infusion
				Toothache	Filling tooth cavity with powder
				Tonic	Maceration
Boswellia papyrifera (Caill. ex Delile) Hochst., Burseraceae, K/12/96	Tarag tarag	Tree	Bark	Diabetes	Maceration	0.17
				Diarrhoea	Infusion
				Anaemia	Infusion
Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand., Apocynaceae, W/20/94	Ushar	Shrub	Stem	Scorpion sting	Latex squeezed and rubbed locally	0.07
Carissa spinarum L., Apocynaceae, W/52/05	Alaly	Shrub	Root	Evil eye	Smoke fumigant	0.93
Cassia arereh Delile, Leguminosae, G/36/83	Um Kasho/gafa	Tree	Root	Stomachache	Maceration	0.37
				Malaria	Maceration
				Toothache	Filling tooth cavity with powder
				Haematuria	Infusion
				Evil eye	Smoke fumigant
Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf) Tirven, Rubiaceae, W/111/95	Shagarat Almarfain	Shrub	Bark	Malaria	Maceration	0.37
				Jaundice	Maceration
				Prostate	Maceration
Catunaregam taylorii (S.Moore) Bridson, Rubiaceae, K/3/96	Karno	Shrub	Seeds	Kidney disorders	Infusion	0.30
Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene, Leguminosae, W/101/94	Jub argaly	Herb	Aerial part	Haematuria	Decoction	0.10
Cissus quadrangularis L., Vitaceae, G/47/83	Sala sala	Climber	Aerial part	Syphilis	Ash	0.67
				Dandruff	Juice as a head wash
				Back pain	Powder mixed with sesame oil and rubbed locally
				Wounds	Poultice applied to wound
Cleome gynandra L., Cleomaceae, W/17/95	Tamalaika	Herb	Leaf	Improve eyesight	Boiled in sour milk	0.23
				Spleen problems	Maceration or infusion
				Worm expulsion	Decoction
				Headache	Decoction
				Rheumatic pain	Decoction
Cleome viscosa L., Cleomaceae, W/10/95	Koda	Herb	Root	Evil eye	Band around arm	0.07
Clitoria ternatea L., Leguminosae, M/18/95	Shagarat alyaragan	Herb	Aerial part	Jaundice	Infusion	0.20
				Laxative	Infusion
				Giardiasis	Infusion
Combretum aculeatum Vent., Combretaceae, K/9/96	Shihait	Shrub	Young branches	Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings	0.07
Combretum hartmannianum Schweinf., Combretaceae, G/114/83	Habeel	Shrub	Bark	Rheumatic pain	Smoke fumigant	0.73
Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr., Burseraceae, W/76/95	Gafal	Shrub	Bark	Measles	Decoction	0.07
Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae, Y/4/010	Gumbail/andrab	Tree	Root	Jaundice	Maceration	0.10
Coriandrum sativum L, Apiaceae, Cultivated	Kasbra	Herb	Seed	Foot pain	Poultice	0.02
Ctenolepis cerasiformis (Stocks) C.B. Clarke, Cucurbitaceae, O/37/79	Kazaky	Herb	Root	Tonic	Maceration	0.07
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng., Poaceae, G/77/83	Mahraib	Herb	Aerial part	Diabetes	Maceration or infusion	0.50
				Stomachache	Maceration or infusion
Cyperus rotundus L., Cyperaceae, AB/16/94	Siada	Herb	Corm	Kidney stones	Infusion	1.10
				Haematuria	Infusion
				Worm expulsion	Infusion
				Headache	Infusion
				Sexual debility	Maceration or infusion
Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr., Leguminosae, G/127/83	Irg abolaila	Tree	Root	Stomachache	Maceration	0.07
Dicoma tomentosa Cass., Asteraceae, M/28/95	Um senainat	Herb	Root	Jaundice	Maceration or infusion	0.07
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn., Leguminosae, K/5/96	Kadad	Tree	Root and fruit	Jaundice	Maceration or infusion	0.30
Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn, Asparagaceae, Y/17/015	Baroug/galb albarida	Herb	Bulb	Sexual debility	Maceration	0.17
				Snake bite	Juice rubbed on place of bite
Echinops longifolius A. Rich., Compositae, G/100/83	Irg agrab	Herb	Root	Scorpion sting	Fresh crushed roots rubbed locally	0.07
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., Myrtaceae, Cultivated	Kafoor	Tree	Leaf	Toothache	Filling tooth cavity with powder	0.07
Fagonia cretica L., Zygophyllaceae, W/121/95	Um shuwaika	Herb	Aerial part	Skin allergy	Poultice	0.03
Geigeria alata Benth. & Hook.f. ex Oliv. & Hiern, Compositae, O/2/81	Gadad	Herb	Aerial part	Diabetes	Infusion	1.67
				Kidney disorders	Infusion
				Hypertension	Infusion
				Stomachache	Infusion
Grewia flavescens Juss., Malvaceae, G/42/83	Hilo/khakasan	Shrub	Fruit	Anaemia	Maceration and mixed with nisha	0.63
Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori, Malvaceae, G/105/83	Gudaim	Shrub	Bark	Wounds	Poultice applied to wounds	0.63
			Fruit	Anaemia	Maceration and mixed with nisha
Grewia villosa Willd., Malvaceae, G/11/83	Gargadan	Shrub	Bark	Wounds	Poultice applied to wounds	0.67
				Anaemia	Maceration and mixed with nisha
				Eye infection	Infusion used as an eyewash
Guiera senegalensis J.F.Gmel., Combretaceae, K/35/96	Gubaish	Shrub	Leaf/root	Acid reflux	Mixed with Ammi visnaga and sugar and taken as powder	1.87
			Leaf	Malaria	Infusion
				Kidney disorders	Infusion
				Diabetes	Infusion
				Tonic	Infusion
Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Malvaceae, Cultivated	Karkady	Herb	Calyx	Hypertension	Infusion	0.93
				Cold and flu	Infusion
				Haemorrhoids	Powder applied to the anus
Hydnora abyssinica A.Br., Hydnoraceae, G/65/83	Dumbo dumbo	Parasite	Root	Stomachache	Powder mixed in yoghourt or ajeen	1.83
				Diarrhoea	Decoction
				Dysentery	Powder mixed in yoghourt
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart., Arecaceae, K/81/96	Dom	Tree	Fruit	Diabetes	Infusion	0.50
				Diarrhoea	Infusion
				Kidney disorders	Infusion
Jatropha curcas L., Euphorbiaceae, Y/20/014	Habat almolouk	Shrub	Seed	Sexual debility	Eat with date	0.07
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss., Meliaceae, G/173/83	Mahougany	Tree	Bark	Malaria	Maceration	0.93
				Jaundice	Infusion
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth., Bignoniaceae, G/8/84	Um shotoor	Tree	Fruit	Breast swellings	Poultice applied at night	1.07
				Rheumatic pain	Roasted and powder mixed with sesame oil and rubbed
				Leprosy	Powder rubbed locally
Lannea fruticosa (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Engl., Anacardiaceae, Y/3/010	Layoun	Shrub	Bark	Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings	0.03
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br., Lamiaceae, M/9/76	Faky bla dawaya	Herb	Aerial part	Evil eye	Smoke fumigant	0.43
Leptadenia arborea (Forssk.) Schwein., Apocynaceae, W/8/95	Hadana/shaloub shailingo	Climber	Root	Acid reflux	Maceration	0.30
				Diarrhoea	Maceration
				Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings
				Jaundice	Maceration
Lepidium sativum L., Brassicaceae, Cultivated	Habat rashad	Herb	Seed	Kidney stones	Powder taken and water drunk after	0.2
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne., Apocynaceae, W/53/06	Mirikh	Shrub	Stem	Rheumatic pain	Smoke fumigant	0.07
Maerua pseudopetalosa (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) DeWolf, Capparaceae, G/107/83	Kurdala	Herb	Root	Diabetes	Masticated then drink water	0.80
				Sexual debility	Masticated then drink water
				Hypertension	Smoke fumigant
				Kidney disorders	Infusion
Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A.Rich., Capparaceae, G/21/82	Wad elbarieh/irig mahaba	Shrub	Root	Evil eye/luck	Smoke fumigant	0.23
Martynia annua L., Martyniaceae, Y/5/014	Irg agrab/maklab shytan	Herb	Root	Scorpion sting	Fresh crushed roots rubbed locally	0.63
Mentha spicata L., Lamiaceae, Cultivated	Nanaa	Herb	Aerial part	Flatulence	Decoction	0.60
Moringa oleifera Lam., Moringaceae, Y/17/014	Moringa	Shrub	Seed	Back pain	Powder mixed with sesame oil and salt and rubbed	0.20
			Leaf	Fatigue	Infusion
Nigella sativa L., Ranunculaceae, Cultivated	Kamoon aswad	Herb	Seed	Articulation pain	Powder mixed with sesame oil	1.20
				Stomachache	Maceration
				Headache	Infusion
			Aerial part	Jaundice	Infusion
Oldenlandia uniflora L., Rubiaceae, Y/12/015	Shagarat albahag	Herb	Root	Leprosy	Powder rubbed locally	0.13
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., Cactaceae, W/34/95	Teen ahawky	Shrub	Latex	Dandruff	Boil in sesame oil and rub hair skin before wash	0.07
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br., Poaceae, Cultivated	Duchen	Herb	Seed	Measles	Powder mixed with milk of black goat and drunk and as body wash	0.10
				Sexual debility	Powder prepared as pudding and eaten
Plicosepalus acaciae (Zucc.) Wiens & Polhill, Loranthaceae, W/161/95	Enaba	Parasite	Bark	Evil eye	Powder mixed with gum and wax of black goat	0.07
			Seed	Repels insect from ear	Smoke fumigant
Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC., Leguminosae, W/44/95	Adan alfar/shgr dabib	Herb	Root	Snake bite	Fresh crushed roots rubbed on place of bite	0.50
Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A.Bruce, Rubiaceae, K/14/96	Um dimy	Shrub	Root or fruit	Malaria	Maceration	2.067
				Jaundice	Maceration
				Diabetes	Infusion
			Fruit pulp	Stomachache	Maceration
				Acid reflux	Infusion
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro, Anacardiaceae, G/92/83	Hommaid	Tree	Bark	Jaundice	Decoction	0.93
				Diarrhoea	Maceration or infusion
				Stomachache	Maceration or infusion
Senna italica Mill., Leguminosae, W/14/95	Sena sena	Herb	Fruit	Dysentery	Maceration or infusion	0.60
				Laxative	Maceration or infusion
				Acne	Powder rubbed locally
Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby, Leguminosae, G/39/83	Kawal	Herb	Leaf and seed	Jaundice	Decoction	0.63
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link, Leguminosae, W/63/95	Bun balash/soreib	Shrub	Seed	Diabetes	Infusion	0.13
				Eczema	Powder rubbed locally
Setaria acromelaena (Hochst.) T.Durand & Schinz, Poaceae, Y/7/015	Um lisaig	Herb	Root	Evil eye	Smoke fumigant	0.07
Solanum dubium Dunal, Solanaceae, W/16/95	Um gibin	Shrub	Root	Jaundice	Decoction	0.07
Sonchus cornutus Hochst. ex Oliv. & Hiern, Compositae, W/12/03	Moleata	Herb	Leaf	Malaria	Infusion	0.200
				Diabetes	Infusion
Stylochiton grandis N.E.Br., Araceae, O/6/79	Marouro	Herb	Root	Scorpion sting	Fresh crushed roots rubbed on place of bite	0.93
Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth., Orobanchaceae, Y/42/014	Boda	Parasite	Aerial part	Menstrual cramps	Maceration	0.93
				Diabetes	Maceration
Strychnos spinosa Lam., Loganiaceae, W/66/95	Umm bekhesa	Tree	Fruit	Hypertension	Eaten	0.07
Tamarindus indica L., Leguminosae, G/132/83	Aradaib	Tree	Fruit pulp	Malaria	Macerated with lemon, calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffa and pods of Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens	0.30
			Bark	Evil eye	Maceration
			Seed	Kidney disorders	Infusion
Terminalia brownii Fresen., Combretaceae, M/8/79	Sobag	Tree	Bark	Jaundice	Decoction until water gets yellow in colour	0.30
				Rheumatic pain	Smoke fumigant
				Wounds	Poultice applied to wound
Terminalia laxiflora Engl., Combretaceae, G/102/83	Daroat	Tree	Bark	Malaria	Maceration	0.07
Tephrosia uniflora Pers., Leguminosae, S/17/97	Tor farid	Herb	Leaf	Urine retention	Maceration	0.50
				Prostate	Maceration
Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae, Purchsed	Zaatr	Herb		Rheumatic pain	Mixed with olive oil and rubbed	0.07
Tinospora bakis (A. Rich.) Miers, Menispermaceae, Y/7/014	Bun balash/irg alhagar	Climber	Root	Swellings	Poultice applied to swelling	0.83
				Snake bite	Maceration
				Stomachache	Maceration
				Malaria	Macerated with clove
				Diabetes	Maceration or infusion
				Evil eye	Smoke fumigant
Tribulus terrestris L., Zygophyllaceae, W/83/95	Diraisa	Herb	Root	Kidney disorders	Maceration	0.70
				Diabetes	Maceration
Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Leguminosae, Cultivated	Hilba	Herb	Seed	Uterus inflammation	Mixed with curcuma, black cumin and bee honey	0.63
				Swellings	Poultice applied to swellings
				Foot pain	Cataplasm
Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel., Rubiaceae, W/45/95	Kir kir	Tree	Fruit	Diabetes	Maceration	0.10
				Kidney disorders	Maceration
				Hypertension	Maceration
Ximenia americana L., Olacaceae, Y/17/014	Jabl fungur	Tree	Bark	Rheumatic pain	Mixed with salt, fruit of Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens and sesame oil and rubbed	0.07
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf., Rhamnaceae, W/122/95	Sidir	Tree	Leaf	Evil eye	Maceration and drunk or as body wash	0.73
			Fruit	Stomachache	Sousing the mesocarp
			Bark	Dysentery	Decoction with atroon

Habitat of the plants

Analysis of data based on their habitat showed that the reported species belong to herbs (43%), trees (28%), shrubs (22%), climbers (4%) and parasites (3%) (Fig. 2). The majority of medicinal plants are collected from the wild, and only 11% are cultivated or purchased (0.01%) from the market (Table 1).

Fig. 2.

Habitat of medicinal plants in the study area

Parts of medicinal plants used

Data on different plant parts used in traditional medicine are indicated in Fig. 3. Those that are used the most were the root and stem (21% each) followed by the fruit (15%), whole plant (14%), seed (12%), leaf (11%), gum/latex, bulb/corm and heartwood (0.02%) and flower (0.01%) respectively. There are cases where different parts of the same plant are being used for the treatment of different diseases.

Fig. 3.

Percentage of plant parts used

Method of preparation

A majority of remedies are administered orally (67%) where infusion (36%) and maceration (32%) are the most used methods. Some prescriptions can be prepared by both methods: infusion or maceration represented 13%, while decoction represented 11% of preparations. Dried powder or freshly collected plant parts are also used. Other prescriptions are used externally (33%) and applied as dry powder (29%), rub (23%), smoke (23%), poultices (20%) or as a wash (6%) (Table 2). Most of these preparations use water as a solvent extractor. Some herbalists used other adjuvants like honey, sugar, salt, milk, sour milk, yoghurt, ajeen (fermented dough), nisha (light porridge), atroon (sodium bicarbonate), bee wax, wax of goat and olive and sesame oil.

Table 2.

Mode of preparations of medicinal plants in the study area

Oral		External
Decoction	15 (11%)	Smoke	15 (23%)
Infusion	48 (36%)	Poultice	13 (20%)
Maceration	43 (32%)	Rubbed	15 (23%)
Infusion/maceration	17 (13%)	Wash	4 (06%)
Powder	12 (09%)	Powder	19 (29%)
Total	135 (67%)	Total	66 (33%)

Medicinal plants used in combination

For the treatment of particular ailment, sometimes herbalists used more than one plant. For example, Allium sativum bulb is mixed with Zingiber officinale rhizome and applied to the anus for the treatment of haemorrhoids. A potion is prepared from the seed of Trigonella foenum-graecum, curcuma, Negilla sativa and bee honey for the treatment of uterus inflammation. Root of Tinospora bakis is mixed with Syzygium aromaticum (clove) for the treatment of malaria. Atroon is added to some preparations like those of Ziziphus spina-christi and Acacia oerfota for the treatment of dysentery and toothache respectively.

Quantitative analyses of ethnomedicinal data

Informant consensus factor

Fifteen ailment categories were identified. The ICF was calculated for each ailment category, and the range was from 0.50 to 0.91 (Table 3). The highest ICF (0.91) was reported for poisonous animal bites with 8 species and 77 use reports, followed by urinary system diseases (0.89) with 17 species and 156 use reports, blood system disorders (0.88) with 14 species and 116 use reports and gynaecological diseases (0.87) with 12 species and 86 use reports. The highest ICF for poisonous animal bites can be probably related to the hard and dangerous environmental conditions. The category of plants used for treatment of eye diseases has the lowest degree of consensus (0.50) where only three informants mentioned ailments in this category.

Table 3.

Diseases based on categories and informant consensus factor (ICF)

	N t	N ur	ICF
Respiratory system diseases	8	31	0.77
Blood system disorders	14	116	0.88
Urinary system	17	156	0.89
Gynaecological diseases	12	86	0.87
Muscoloskeletal system	15	90	0.84
Dermatology	19	64	0.71
Digestive system disorders	48	292	0.84
Parasite infections	22	126	0.83
Endocrinological system (diabetes)	16	89	0.83
Abnormalities	9	45	0.82
Poisonous animal bites	8	77	0.91
Pain	10	43	0.76
Eye diseases	2	3	0.50
General health	4	13	0.75
Envy eye	12	89	0.86

Respiratory system diseases: cold, cough, flu, asthma, measles and ear infection. Blood system disorders: hypertension, anaemia and spleen problems. Urinary system: kidney disorders, kidney stones, urine retention and haematuria. Gynaecological diseases: uterus inflammation, menstruation, syphilis, postpartum, prostate and sexual weakness. Muscoloskeletal system: rheumatism, back pain and foot pain. Dermatology: skin diseases, skin allergy, wounds, eczema, leprosy and dandruff. Digestive system disorders: stomachache, flatulence, acid reflux, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, dysentery, laxative and jaundice. Parasite infections: bilharzia, malaria, giardiasis and helminthiasis. Endocrinological system: diabetes. Abnormalities: swellings. Poisonous animal bites: scorpion sting and snake bite. Pain: headache and toothache. Eye diseases: improved eyesight, eye infection. General health: tonic

N_t number of taxa, N_ur number of use reports

Most frequently cited plant species and medicinal uses

In this study, the most cited plants, those that had at least 20 or more citations for specific ailment, were Guiera senegalensis (57 citations) mainly used for the treatment of malaria (22 citations) and kidney disorders (20 citations). This is followed by Hydnora abyssinica (55 citations) used in the treatment of gastrointestinal system diseases (mainly for diarrhoea and dysentery (40 citations), Geigeria alata (50 citations) used mainly for the treatment of diabetes (20 citations) and hypertension (17 citations), Kigelia africana (32 citations) with 28 citations for the treatment of breast swellings and Carissa spinarum (28 citations) for envy eye.

Medicinal plants and the associated knowledge

Thirty healers (24 male and 6 female) were interviewed and divided into five different age groups (20–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51–60 and > 60). Analysis of the result on ages of healers revealed that the most dominant age of men is 41–50 while for women which were few in number is > 60 (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 4.

Age group distribution of the traditional healers interviewed

Discussion

In this study, the most cited plants, Guiera senegalensis, Hydnora abyssinica, Geigeria alata, Kigelia africana and Carissa spinarum, were previously reported with the same traditional uses in ethnobotanical studies from other regions of Sudan. For example, Guiera senegalensis was reported by EL-Kamali [3] and Suleiman [21] for the treatment of malaria. Hydnora abyssinica (H. johannis) for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery and Kigelia africana for the treatment of breast swellings were also reported by Musa et al. [22]. Geigeria alata for the treatment of diabetes was reported by EL-Kamali [3] and Suleiman [21]. Carissa spinarum (C. edulis) was reported by EL-Kamali [3] for charm and the treatment of madness. Kigelia africana was reported by Doka and Yagi [23] for swollen mastitis.

The high frequency of citations of medicinal plants can be explained by the fact that these plants are the best known and have long been used by the majority of informants, representing a source of reliability. In fact, many biological activity and phytochemical evaluation were carried out for these plants. For example, Traore-Keita et al. [24] reported that the chloroform extract of roots of Guiera senegalensis exhibited a pronounced antimalarial activity. They isolated two alkaloids, namely, harman and tetrahydroharman, that displayed high antimalarial activity (IC₅₀ (50% inhibition) lower than 4 μg/mL) and low toxicity against human leukemia monocytic cell line (THP1). Yagi et al. [25] found that Hydnora johannis roots have no activity against bacteria spp. that are mainly responsible of diarrhoea but are rich in phenols. They suggested that the curing potency of the roots of H. johannis was not mainly associated with the presence of antibacterial activity agent(s) against bacterial species responsible of dysentery or diarrhoea but might be attributed to the role of tannins in reducing the effect through denaturing the proteins by the formation of protein tannate, thereby causing the intestinal mucosa to become more resistant, reducing the intestinal transit and by acting as a barrier against toxin exerted by bacteria. The antidiabetic potential of Geigeria alata root was evaluated, and diabetic rats dosed with 250 mg/kg of aqueous methanolic extract were found to have significantly (p < 0.05) decreased blood glucose level closer to that of non-diabetic rats and improved β-cell function and antioxidant status [26]. Kigelia africana was found to suppress the breast MCF7 [27], human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2), human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) [28] and HeLa cervical cancer cell proliferation [29].

Comparative review of traditional usages of reported species with previous studies from Sudan

A comparative review with previous reports [3, 21–23, 30–33] from different parts of Sudan was performed to identify the new medicinal plants and new uses reported in this study (Table 4). The plants reported by Suleiman [21] for traditional plants used by communities of Northern Kordofan region included a total of 44 plant species with 22 species with same traditional uses which were reported also in this study, while 2 species, Blepharis linariifolia and Catunaregam nilotica (Xeromphis nilotica, Randia nilotica), were reported with different uses. EL-Kamali [3] reported 48 plant species for traditional plant uses in North Kordofan too with 15 species with same traditional uses which were reported also in this study and 5 species, Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens, Aristolochia bracteolate, Cissus quadrangularis, Dichrostachys cinerea and Sarcocephalus latifolius (Nauclea latifolia), with different uses. Doka and Yagi [23] reported 49 plant species for traditional plant uses in West Kordofan with 16 species with same traditional uses which were reported also in this study, and 9 species were reported in this study with different uses; these included Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Arachis hypogaea, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cissus quadrangularis, Combretum aculeatum, Grewia flavescens, Tamarindus indica and Catunaregam nilotica. Musa et al. [22] reported 53 plant species for traditional plant uses in the Blue Nile State, southeastern Sudan, with 18 species with same traditional uses which were reported in this study and 13 species with different uses: Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Anogeissus leiocarpus, Carissa spinarum (C. edulis), Cissus quadrangularis, Grewia villosa, Lannea fruticose, Piliostigma reticulatum, Senna occidentalis, Strychnos spinose, Tephrosia uniflora, Terminalia laxiflora and Ximenia americana. Moreover, El Ghazali et al. [30–33] in their books of Sudanese medicinal plants documented some of these plants for the same or very similar usages. In fact, there are 99 new traditional uses for some previously reported medicinal plants. For example, the whole plant of Striga hermonthica was previously reported to treat diabetes, but in this study, it is used also for menstrual cramps. The fruit of Senna occidentalis is reported to treat eczema beside its common use as a laxative. Plicosepalus acaciae is commonly used to enhance wound healing and as a lactagogue, but in this study, the smoke fumigant of the seeds is reported to repel insect from ear.

Table 4.

Comparative review of traditional usages of reported species with previous studies from Sudan

Plant name	Disease treated	Suleiman [18]	EL-Kamali [2]	Koda and Yagi [20]	Musa et al. [19]	El Ghazali et al. [27–30]
Abrus precatorius	Spleen problems					Snake bite1
						Headache4
Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens	Stomachache	Cold and flu and pharyngitis	Hypertension	Cough	Phlegmatic cough	Cold and flu3, 4
	Cold and flu	Tonsillitis			Furuncles	Tonsillitis2
	Wounds	Fever			Malaria
		Measles
		Hypertension
		Catarrh
		Antiseptic
Acacia oerfota	Back pain	Antirheumatic		Tooth cavity	Toothache	Swellings4
	Swellings				Headache	Scorpion sting4
	Snake bite				Snake bite
	Toothache
Acacia senegal	Haematuria	Rheumatoid arthritis		Giardiasis	Kidney problems
	Toothache	Heartburn
Acacia seyal	Rheumatic pain			Leprosy	Diarrhoea	Diarrhoea2
				Bleeding	Dysentery	Dysentery2
Acanthorrhinum ramosissimum	Evil eye
Adansonia digitata	Giardiasis	Dysentery	Fever	Pain after birth	Malaria	Stomachache4
	Stomachache	Diarrhoea	Diarrhoea		Diarrhoea
		Stomachache			Dysentery
		Fever
		Kidney stones		Diarrhoea
Albizia anthelmintica	Anthelmintic	Anthelmintic	Anthelmintic	Anthelmintic		Stomachache4
	Wounds
	Stomachache
	Jaundice
Allium sativum	Haemorrhoids					Haemorrhoids5
Anastatica hierochuntica	Postpartum
Anogeissus leiocarpus	Toothache	Diabetes			Cough	Cough1
	Jaundice	Dysentery			Giardiasis
	Malaria	Wound			Dysentery
		Urine retention
		Malaria
Anticharis senegalensis	Swellings					Swellings2
Arachis hypogaea	Bilharzia			Scorpion bite
Aristolochia bracteolata	Malaria	Malaria	Scorpion sting		Malaria	Malaria1
	Ear infection	HIV-1				Antitumour3
	Headache	Scorpion sting				Scorpion sting4
		Ear infection
		Wounds
		Toothache
		Headaches
Azadiracta indica	Rheumatic pain		Antipyretic		Malaria, fever,	Fever2
	Malaria		Backache		Jaundice	Scorpion sting3
						Snake bite3
						Intestinal spasm3
						Anthelmintic4
						Constipation4
Balanites aegyptiaca	Diabetes	Stomachache	Antispasmodic	Malaria		Diabetes2
	Hypertension	Anthelmintic	Stomach pain	Kidney disorders		Constipation2
	Bilharzia	Dysentery	Diabetes			Constipation3
	Jaundice	Constipation				Bilharzia3
		Jaundice				Wound3
		Diabetes
						Syphilis2
Bergia suffruticosa	Eczema					Leucoderms2
Blepharis linariifolia	Kidney disorders	Swellings	Stomach pain	Urine retention		Stomach pain4
	Diabetes		Kidney stone			Bilharzia4
	Wounds
	Hypertension
	Toothache
	Tonic
Boswellia papyrifera	Diabetes			Dysentery	Bilharzia	Jaundice4
	Diarrhoea			Respiratory infections	Diarrhoea, dysentery
	Anaemia
Calotropis procera	Scorpion sting	Scorpion sting	Haemorrhoids	Scorpion sting		Wounds2
	Wounds	Haemorrhoids	Scorpion sting	Rheumatic pain		Rheumatic pain2
		Rheumatic pain				Scorpion sting4
		Wounds				Jaundice4
Carissa spinarum (Syn. C. edulis)	Evil eye		Kidney disorders		Treating rashes	Skin lesions1
			Charm and madness			Stomachache4
						Headache4
						Cough4
						Anthelmintic4
Cassia arereh	Stomachache				Stomachache
	Malaria				Diarrhoea
	Toothache				Evil eye
	Haematuria
	Evil eye
Catunaregam nilotica (Syn. Randia nilotica, Xeromphis nilotica)	Malaria	Swellings	Swellings	Rabies	Measles	Jaundice4
	Jaundice	Tonsillitis	Tonsillitis		Toothache	Anthelmintic4
	Prostate	Dandruff	Jaundice			Rabies4
			Dandruff
Catunaregam taylorii	Kidney disorders
Chamaecrista nigricans (Syn. Senna nigricans)	Haematuria					Stomachache4
Cissus quadrangularis	Syphilis	Syphilis	Haemorrhoids	Syphilis	Acne	Pruritus1
	Dandruff	Asthma		Leprosy	Evil eye	Scorpion sting4
	Back pain	Haemorrhoids		Snake bite		Stomachache4
	Wounds	Snake bite				Joint pain4
		Tuberculosis
Cleome gynandra (Syn. Gynandropsis gynandra)	Improve eyesight
	Spleen problems
	Worm expulsion
	Headache
	Rheumatic pain
Cleome viscosa L.	Evil eye
Clitoria ternatea	Jaundice				Constipation	Constipation1
	Laxative
	Giardiasis
Combretum aculeatum	Swellings			Snake bite		Wound3
						Constipation4
						Tuberculosis4
Combretum hartmonnianum	Rheumatic pain					Jaundice3, 4
Commiphora gileadensis	Measles	Antirheumatic
		Typhoid fever
Cordia africana	Jaundice	Cuts, burns and wounds	Cuts, wounds and burns
Coriandrum sativum	Foot pain					Hypertension5
Ctenolepis cerasiformis	Tonic
Cymbopogon schoenanthus	Diabetes	Antispasmodic				Stomachache2
	Stomachache	Stomachache
		Gout
		Helminthiasis
		Inflammation of prostate
Cyperus rotundus	Kidney stones
	Haematuria
	Worm expulsion
	Headache
	Sexual debility
Detarium microcarpum	Stomachache		Rheumatism
Dichrostachys cinerea	Jaundice		Wounds		Stomachache
	Asthma				Diarrhoea
	Evil eye				Toothache
					Jaundice
					Sexual debility
Dicoma tomentosa	Jaundice					Toothache1
						Febrifuge1, 4
						Mumps3
Drimia maritima	Sexual debility
	Snake bite
Echinops longifolius	Scorpion sting
Eucalyptus camaldulensis	Toothache
Fagonia cretica	Skin allergy			Skin allergy		Stomachache2
						Muscular pain3
Geigeria alata	Diabetes	Antispasmodic	Diabetes			Stomachache2
	Stomachache	Stomachache	Antispasmodic			Epilepsy3
	Kidney disorders	Intestinal complaints	Intestinal complaints
	Hypertension	Anthelmintic	Hypertension
		Diabetes	Cough
		Hypertension
		Cough
Grewia flavescens	Anaemia			Stomach disorders		Tuberculosis4
				Leprosy
Grewia tenax	Wounds	Tonsillitis, throat infections				Tonsillitis2
	Anaemia	Anaemia				Swellings2
		Malaria				Jaundice3
		Tonic				Trichoma3
Grewia villosa	Wounds	Wounds			Cancer	Constipation1
	Eye infection	Syphilis
		Arthralgia
		Eye ache
Guiera senegalensis	Acid reflux	Jaundice	Stomach pain			Leprosy1, 4
	Malaria	Antipyretic	Jaundice			Antipyretic2, 3, 4
	Kidney disorders	Antispasmodic	Malarial fever			Leprosy3
	Diabetes	Diarrhoea	Antispasmodic			Vomiting4
	Tonic	Leprosy	As a tonic
		Diabetes
		Hypertension
		Malarial fever
		Wound
Hibiscus sabdariffa	Hypertension	Cough	Snake bite
	Cold and flu	Headache	Scorpion sting
	Hypertension	Haematuria	Haemorrhoids
	Haemorrhoids	Hypertension	Headache
		Fever
		Snake bite
		Scorpion sting
Hydnora abyssinica (Syn. H. johannis)	Stomachache				Cholera	Dysentery2
	Diarrhoea				Diarrhoea	Tonsillitis2
					Dysentery	Swellings2
	Dysentery				Evil eye
Hyphaene thebaica	Diabetes					Spleen problems5
	Diarrhoea					Stomachache5
	Kidney disorders					Wound5
Jatropha curcas	Sexual debility		Laxative		Giardia
					Jaundice
					Malaria
					Fever
Khaya senegalensis	Malaria	Malarial fever	Malarial fever		Malaria	Headache4
	Jaundice	Syphilis	Asthma		Diabetes	Stomachache4
		Taeniacide	Intestinal complaints			Dysentery4
		Hepatic inflammation
		Jaundice
		Trachoma
		Enterogastritis
Kigelia africana	Breast swellings			Swollen mastitis	Breast tumour
	Rheumatic pain				Hypertension
	Leprosy				Diabetes
Lannea fruticosa	Swellings				Dysentery
					Wound
Leonotis nepetifolia	Evil eye					Swellings4
						Stomachache4
Leptadenia arborea	Acid reflux	Jaundice		Jaundice		Snake bite3
	Diarrhoea	Dandruff		Dandruff		Gonorrhoea4
	Swellings					Swellings4
	Jaundice
Leptadenia pyrotechnica	Rheumatic pain	Antirheumatic	Rheumatism
		Sciatica
		Urine retention
Lepidium sativum	Kidney stones					Swellings5
Maerua pseudopetalosa	Diabetes
	Sexual debility
	Hypertension
	Kidney disorders
Maerua oblongifolia	Evil eye/luck					Snake bite2
Martynia annua	Scorpion sting
Mentha spicata	Flatulence					Flatulence5
Moringa oleifera	Back pain
	Fatigue
Nigella sativa	Articulation pain					Diabetes5
	Stomachache					Hypertension5
	Headache					Stomachache5
	Jaundice
Oldenlandia uniflora	Eczema
	Leprosy
Opuntia ficus-indica	Dandruff
Pennisetum glaucum	Measles					Rheumatic pain5
	Sexual debility
Plicosepalus acaciae	Evil eye					Lactagogue2
	Repels insect from ear					Wound2
Piliostigma reticulatum	Hypertension				Snake bite	Snake bite1
	Jaundice
	Wounds
Rhynchosia minima	Snake bite					Anti acid1
Sarcocephalus latifolius (Syn. Nauclea latifolia)	Malaria	Malarial fever	Headache, cough			Tapeworms1
	Jaundice	Headache	Antihypertensive			Dysentery4
	Diabetes	Cough	Kidney disorders			Cough4
	Stomachache	Hypertensive				Abdominal pain4
	Acid reflux	Kidney disorders
		Dysentery
		Abdominal pain
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra	Jaundice	Dysentery	Suleiman (2015) [21]		Dysentery	Stomachache4
	Diarrhoea	Diarrhoea			Diarrhoea	Diarrohea4
	Stomachache	Diabetes
Senna italica	Dysentery			Constipation		Rheumatic pain3
	Laxative
	Eczema
Senna occidentalis	Diabetes	Backache	Backache	Diabetes	Jaundice	Jaundice3
	Eczema	Hypertension	Hypertension	Gonorrhoea
		Malaria		Intestinal ulcer
		Dysentery
		Jaundice
Senna obtusifolia	Jaundice	Jaundice	Jaundice		Jaundice	Constipation4
	Eczema					Ringworm4
						Wound4
Setaria acromelaena	Evil eye
Solanum dubium	Jaundice
Sonchus cornutus	Malaria
	Diabetes
Striga hermonthica	Menstrual cramps		Diabetes
	Diabetes					Leukoderma3
Strychnos spinosa	Hypertension			Hypertension	Sexual debility
Stylochiton grandis	Scorpion sting					Scorpion sting2
Tamarindus indica	Malaria	Malaria		Food poisoning	Malaria	Malaria4
	Kidney disorders	Malaria fever		Toothache	Fever	Constipation4
	Evil eye	Cold and flu			Stomachache
		Jaundice			Wound
		Constipation
Tephrosia uniflora	Urine retention				Diarrhoea	Headache1, 4
	Prostate					Tonic4
Terminalia brownii	Jaundice					Diabetes1
	Rheumatic pain					Cough2
	Wound
Terminalia laxiflora	Malaria				Cough, tonic
Thymus vulgaris	Rheumatic pain					Flatulence5
Tinospora bakis	Swelling		Abdominal pain			Wound1
	Snake bite
	Stomachache
	Malaria
	Diabetes
	Evil eye
Tribulus terrestris	Kidney disorders
	Diabetes
Trigonella foenum-graecum	Uterus inflammation					Swellings5
	Swellings					Haemorrhoids5
	Foot pain
Vangueria madagascariensis	Diabetes				Diabetes
	Kidney disorders
	Hypertension
Ximenia americana	Rheumatic pain			Rheumatic pain		Measles1
Ziziphus spina-christi	Stomachache	Swellings	Antispasmodic		Stomachache,	Swellings2
	Dysentery	Antispasmodic	Fever		Dysentery	Constipation2
	Evil eye	Constipation			Diarrhoea	Intestinal spasm3
		Gonorrhoea			Malaria	Stomachache4
					Urine retention	Gonorrhoea4

New species and new uses for species are reported for the first time in this study. For example, Anastatica hierochuntica, Ctenolepis cerasiformis, Echinops longifolius, Cleome gynandra, Maerua pseudopetalosa, Martynia annua, Oldenlandia uniflora, Opuntia ficus-indica, Solanum dubium, Sonchus cornutus, Tribulus terrestris and Drimia maritima were not being mentioned in any previous study for the traditional Sudanese medicine. Acanthorrhinum ramosissimum, Cleome viscosa and Setaria acromelaena which were used for evil eye were also reported for the first time.

The majorities of the healers declared that they had learned about medicinal plants from their parents or grandparents. The lack of systematic documentation for medicinal plant knowledge which appears to occur in many parts of the world may contribute to the loss of this knowledge, particularly for plants that are neglected or non-preferred [34–36].

Conclusion

The number of medicinal plants reported in this paper reflects evidence that the Algoz area harbours a high diversity of medicinal plants that will continue to play an important role in the healthcare system in the study area. Evaluation of their claimed pharmacological potential efficacy and toxicity profile is essential. Moreover, the present study could contribute in conserving such rich heritage and providing precious information as a contribution through writing the Sudanese pharmacopeia.

Conservation of this traditional knowledge is very important. The progressing mass destruction of wild vegetation for various purposes may accelerate the disappearance of medicinal plants. This in turn may have profound consequences on the roles of traditional medicine on human health. Furthermore, the drop in the availability of raw materials due to the depletion of natural resources affects the discovery of potential drugs [37]. Thus, raising community awareness about conservation and sustainable utilization of the traditional medicinal plants is a vital part for the entire plant biodiversity [22]. Modern biotechnical approaches like genetic engineering, micropropagation via tissue encapsulation of propagules, tissue culture and fermentation should be applied to improve yield and modify the potency of medicinal plants [38].

Abbreviations

ICF

Informant consensus factor

UV

Use value

Authors’ contributions

TOI and YS conducted the field survey and collected the data, SY did the analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript, RHA and TMN provided support in sampling and plant species identification, AMM provided technical support and helped in the write-up and revision and TOK designed the study and supervised the project. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics approval

The present study is purely based on filed survey instead of human or animal trails.

Ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/) were strictly followed.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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