Table 1.
Studies examining the relationship between Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and comorbid psychopathology, including effect sizes.
| Source | Study Type | N | Population Age a | Sex | Country | IGD Measures | Psychopathology Measures | Psychopathology Outcome | Association | Effect Size | 95% CI of d |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baer et al., 2011 [24] | cross-sectional | 102 | adolescents 13.7 ± 1.9 |
M/F | Canada | Computer/Gaming-station Addiction Scale (CGAS) | Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire | Emotional problems | full | R2 = 0.29 | – |
| Hyperactivity | full | R2 = 0.18 | – | ||||||||
| Cole & Hooley, 2013 [25] | cross-sectional | 163 | general population 27.3 ± 9.1 |
M/F | USA | Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) | State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) | Anxiety state | full | d = 0.26 | −0.05–0.57 |
| Anxiety trait | full | d = 1.07 | 0.74–1.40 | ||||||||
| Social Phobia Scale | Social phobia | full | d = 1.17 | 0.83–1.50 | |||||||
| Jiménez-Murcia et al., 2014 [26] | cross-sectional | 193 | adults with GD 42.4 ± 13.4 |
M/F | Spain | Video-game Dependency Test (VDT) | Symptom Checklist 90-revision | Somatization | full | d = 0.57 | 0.16–0.983 |
| Obsessive-Compulsive | full | d = 0.84 | 0.424–1.257 | ||||||||
| Interpersonal Sensitivity | full | d = 0.76 | 0.341–1.169 | ||||||||
| Depression | full | d = 0.58 | 0.17–0.991 | ||||||||
| Anxiety | full | d = 0.64 | 0.216–1.064 | ||||||||
| Hostility | full | d = 0.68 | 0.255–1.106 | ||||||||
| Phobic-Anxiety | full | d = 0.55 | 0.127–0.973 | ||||||||
| Paranoid Ideation | full | d = 0.83 | 0.402–1.259 | ||||||||
| Psychoticism | full | d = 0.56 | 0.137–0.983 | ||||||||
| Kim et al., 2016 [27] | cross-sectional | 3041 | adults 20–49 | M/F | South Korea | IGD diagnostic criteria in DSM-5 | Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) | Somatization | full | d = 1.59 | 1.481–1.703 |
| Obsessive-Compulsive | full | d = 1.67 | 1.557–1.78 | ||||||||
| Interpersonal Sensitivity | full | d = 1.61 | 1.499–1.721 | ||||||||
| Depression | full | d = 1.75 | 1.642–1.867 | ||||||||
| Anxiety | full | d = 1.75 | 1.642–1.866 | ||||||||
| Hostility | full | d = 1.72 | 1.61–1.834 | ||||||||
| Phobic-Anxiety | full | d = 1.82 | 1.705–1.928 | ||||||||
| Paranoid Ideation | full | d = 1.74 | 1.623–1.847 | ||||||||
| Psychoticism | full | d = 1.76 | 1.646–1.87 | ||||||||
| King et al., 2013 [28] | cross-sectional | 1287 | adolescents 12–18 |
M/F | Australia | Pathological Technology Use (PTU) | Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale | Depression | none | – | |
| Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) | none | – | |||||||||
| Anxiety | none | – | |||||||||
| King & Delfabbro, 2016 [29] | cross-sectional | 824 | adolescents 14.1 ± 1.5 |
M/F | Australia | IGD Diagnostic criteria in DSM-5 | Depression Anxiety Stress Scales, 21-item version | Depression | full * | d = 0.62 | 0.087–1.155 |
| Anxiety | full * | d = 0.50 | −0.035–1.025 | ||||||||
| Laconi et al., 2017 [30] | cross-sectional | 418 | adults 21.9 ± 3 |
M/F | France | Internet Gaming Disorder Test-10 (IGDT-10) | Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Depression Scale-10 | Depression | full | d = 2.687 | 1.969–3.405 |
| Männikkö et al., 2015 [31] | cross-sectional | 293 | general population 18.7 ± 3.4 |
M/F | Finland | Gaming Addiction Scale (GAS) | School Health Promotion (SHP) | Depression | full | R2 = 0.17 | - |
| Anxiety | full | R2 = 0.11 | - | ||||||||
| Mentzoni, et al., 2011 [32] | cross-sectional | 816 | general population 15–40 |
M/F | Norway | Gaming Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GASA) | Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) | Depression | full | n/a | - |
| Anxiety | full | n/a | - | ||||||||
| Müller et al., 2015 [33] | cross-sectional | 12,938 | adolescents 15.8 ± 0.7 |
M/F | Germany | Assessment of Internet and Computer Game Addiction (AICGA) | Youth Self-Report | Anxious-Depression | full | d = 0.34 | 0.183–0.496 |
| Withdrawn-Depression | full | d = 0.35 | 0.347–0.507 | ||||||||
| Na et al., 2017 [34] | cross-sectional | 1819 | adults 20–49 | M/F | South Korea | IGD diagnostic criteria in DSM-5 | Symptom Checklist 90-revision | Depression | full | n/a | - |
| Anxiety | full | n/a | - | ||||||||
| Starcevic et al., 2011 [35] | cross-sectional | 1945 | general population over 14 | M/F | Australia | Video-Game Use Questionnaire (VGUQ) | Symptom Checklist 90 | Somatization | partial> | d = 1.02 | 0.854–1.187 |
| Obsessive-Compulsive | partial | d = 1.365 | 1.196–1.534 | ||||||||
| Interpersonal Sensitivity | partial | d = 1.228 | 1.059–1.396 | ||||||||
| Depression | partial | d = 1.264 | 1.096–1.433 | ||||||||
| Anxiety | partial> | d = 1.149 | 0.981–1.317 | ||||||||
| Hostility | partial> | d = 1.276 | 1.108–1.445 | ||||||||
| Phobic-Anxiety | partial> | d = 1.131 | 0.964–1.299 | ||||||||
| Paranoid Ideation | partial> | d = 1.203 | 1.035–1.371 | ||||||||
| Psychoticism | partial> | d = 1.368 | 1.199–1.537 | ||||||||
| Stetina et al., 2011 [36] | cross-sectional | 468 | general population 11–67 |
M/F | Austria | Problematic Internet use scale (ISS-20) | Questionnaire for depression diagnostics (FDD for DSM-IV) | Depression | none | - | - |
| Strittmatter et al., 2015 [37] | cross-sectional | 9758 | adolescents 15.0 ± 1.3 |
M/F | Germany | Young Diagnostic Questionnaire (YDQ) | Beck Depression Inventory II | Depression | full | d = 0.58 | 0.449–0.702 |
| Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) | Hyperactivity | full | d = 0.53 | 0.399–0.652 | |||||||
| Vadlin et al., 2016 [38] | cross-sectional | N1 (1868) N2 (242) | adolescents 12–18 |
M/F | Sweden | Gaming Addiction Identification (GAIT) | Depression Self-Rating Scale (DSRS-A) | Depression | full | OR 2.47 (1.44–4.25) | - |
| Spence Children‘s Anxiety Scale (SCAS) | Anxiety | full | OR 2.06 (1.27–3.33) | - | |||||||
| Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS-A) | Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | full | OR 2.43 (1.44–4.11) | - | |||||||
| Psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) | Psychoticism | none | - | - | |||||||
| Wang et al., 2018 [39] | cross-sectional | 7200 | general population 14–39 |
M/F | South Korea | IGD diagnostic criteria in DSM-5 | Patient Health Questionnaire9 (PHQ9) | Depression | full | n/a | - |
| Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) | Anxiety | n/a | - | - | |||||||
| Wartberg et al., 2017 [40] | cross-sectional | 1095 | adolescents 13.0 ± 0.82 |
M/F | Germany | Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGDS) | Reynolds Adolescent Adjustment Screening Inventory | Depression and anxiety | full | OR 1.09 (1.02–1.17) | - |
| Hyperactivity | full | OR 1.27 (1.16–1.39) | - | ||||||||
| Wei et al., 2012 [41] | cross-sectional | 722 | general population 21.8 ± 4.9 |
M/F | Taiwan | Chen’s Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS) | Depression and Somatic Symptoms Scale (DSSS) | Depression | full | R2 = 0.298 | - |
| Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN) | Social phobia | full | n/a | - | |||||||
| Panagiotidi, 2017 [42] | cross-sectional | 205 | adults 27.4 ± 10 |
M/F | United Kingdom | Problem Video-Game Playing Test (PVGT) | ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) | ADHD | full | R2 = 0.22 | - |
| Gentile et al., 2011 [43] | Longitudinal | 3034 | children, adolescents 11.2 ± 2.06 |
M/F | Singapore | Pathological Technology Use (PTU) | Asian Adolescent Depression Scale (AADS) | Depression | full | R2 = 0.49 | - |
| Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) | Anxiety | full | R2 = 0.29 | - | |||||||
| Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS-A) | ADHD | none | - | - | |||||||
| Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN) | Social phobia | full | R2 = 0.20 | - | |||||||
| Van Rooij et al., 2011 [44] | Longitudinal | T1 (1572) T2 (1476) | children 13–16 |
M/F | Deutschland | Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) | Depressive Mood List | T1: Depression T2: Depression |
none full # |
n/a | - |
| Revised Social Anxiety Scale for Children | T1: Social anxiety T2: Social anxiety |
none none |
- | - | |||||||
| Hyun et al., 2015 [45] | case-control | 308 | general population 21.0 ± 5.9 |
M/F | South Korea | Young Internet Addiction Scale (YIAS) | Beck Depressive Inventory (BDI) | Depression | full | d = 1.09 | 0.88–1.305 |
| Beck Anxiety Scale (BAI) | Anxiety | full | d = 0.64 | 0.437–0.845 | |||||||
| Dupaul’s ADHD scale (K-ARS) | ADHD | full | d = 1.05 | 0.838–1.262 | |||||||
| Yen et al., 2016 [46] | case-control | 174 | adults 23.29 ± 2.34 23.38 ± 2.40 |
M/F | Taiwan | Semi-structured interview with the DSM-5 IGD criteria | ADHD DSM-IV-TR criteria diagnosis for adult and childhood | ADHD | full | OR 13.51 (4.49–40.64) | - |
| Brunborg et al., 2014 [47] | cohort | 1928 | adolescents 13–17 |
M/F | Norway | Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GASA) | Hopkins Symptom Checklist | Depression | T1: full other time: none |
R2 = 0.25 | - - |
a Age is presented in years as a range or mean with standard deviation (SD). M/F = both males and females analyzed together. * Low severity symptoms. n/a Non-enough data provided to calculate the effect size or not applicable. # When non-addicted heavy gamers and addicted heavy gamers compared. > A difference was found between IGD subjects and non IGD subjects but the psychopathology scores on both groups were not clinical.