Table 2.
Average changes among adults regarding psychological needs, motivation for physical activity and healthy diet, barriers, physical activity, dietary behaviour, quality of life and body mass index (BMI), at T1 and T2 compared to T0, analysed using linear mixed models.
| Outcome Variable | Pre-Test (T0) | Change T1–T0 | Change T2–T0 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | B (CI) | Effect Size | B (CI) | Effect Size | |
| Psychological needs 1 | |||||
| Autonomy | 4.3 (0.7) | 0.2 (0.0, 0.3) ** | 0.31 | 0.2 (0.1, 0.3) ** | 0.40 |
| Competence | 3.3 (0.9) | 0.2 (0.0, 0.4) | 0.27 | 0.2 (−0.1, 0.4) | 0.29 |
| Relatedness | 3.4 (1.0) | −0.1 (−0.3, 0.1) | 0.04 | −0.1 (−0.4, 0.1) | −0.04 |
| Motivation for physical activity 2 | |||||
| Amotivation | 0.6 (0.7) | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.2) | −0.01 | 0.0 (−0.2, 0.2) | −0.01 |
| External regulation | 0.9 (1.1) | −0.3 (−0.4, −0.1) ** | −0.24 | −0.3 (−0.5, −0.2) *** | −0.28 |
| Introjected regulation | 1.4 (1.0) | 0.0 (−0.2, 0.2) | 0.05 | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.1) | −0.14 |
| Controlled motivation 3 | 5.0 (3.9) | −0.4 (−1.2, 0.3) | −0.14 | −0.8 (−1.6, 0.0) * | −0.21 |
| Identified regulation | 2.8 (0.9) | 0.1 (−0.1, 0.3) | 0.16 | 0.0 (−0.2, 0.1) | 0.00 |
| Integrated regulation | 2.2 (1.1) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.5) *** | 0.30 | 0.2 (0.0, 0.4) | 0.14 |
| Intrinsic motivation | 2.5 (1.2) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.5) *** | 0.36 | 0.2 (0.0, 0.4) * | 0.16 |
| Autonomous motivation 4 | 14.7 (6.3) | 1.9 (0.9, 2.9) *** | 0.33 | 1.0 (0.0, 1.9) | 0.14 |
| Motivation for healthy diet 2 | |||||
| Amotivation | 0.6 (0.8) | 0.0 (−0.2, 0.1) | −0.06 | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.2) | 0.04 |
| External regulation | 2.0 (1.0) | −0.2 (−0.4, −0.1) * | −0.16 | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.0) | −0.15 |
| Introjected regulation | 2.1 (1.0) | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.0) * | −0.14 | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.0) * | −0.19 |
| Controlled motivation 3 | 8.0 (3.9) | −0.9 (−1.5, −0.2) * | −0.21 | −0.5 (−1.3, 0.3) | −0.10 |
| Identified regulation | 3.6 (0.6) | 0.0 (−0.2, 0.1) | −0.01 | −0.1 (−0.2, 0.1) | −0.09 |
| Integrated regulation | 2.6 (1.0) | 0.4 (0.2, 0.6) *** | 0.52 | 0.3 (0.1, 0.5) ** | 0.34 |
| Intrinsic motivation | 2.9 (0.9) | 0.2 (0.1, 0.4) *** | 0.38 | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.2) | 0.10 |
| Autonomous motivation 4 | 17.5 (4.6) | 1.6 (0.9, 2.2) *** | 0.46 | 0.7 (−0.2, 1.5) | 0.19 |
| Barriers 1 | |||||
| Physical activity | 2.5 (0.8) | −0.3 (−0.5, −0.2) *** | −0.52 | −0.3 (−0.4, −0.2) *** | −0.44 |
| Eating a healthy diet | 2.1 (0.8) | −0.3 (−0.5, −0.2) *** | −0.51 | −0.3 (−0.5, −0.1) *** | −0.44 |
| Physical activity | |||||
| Sedentary behaviour 5 | 437.1 (198.8) | −123.2 (−162.2, −84.2) *** | −0.69 | −102.9 (−151.6, −54.2) *** | −0.52 |
| Walking 6 | 284.3 (327.9) | −35.3 (−101.4, 30.7) | −0.15 | −12.1 (−83.2, 59.0) | −0.06 |
| Moderate-intensity activities 6 | 229.6 (326.5) | 72.2 (−23.3, 167.7) | 0.25 | 106.8 (16.5, 197.0) * | 0.32 |
| Vigorous-intensity activities 6 | 96.2 (167.7) | 78.2 (26.3, 130.0) ** | 0.41 | 87.5 (25.4, 149.5) ** | 0.50 |
| Total | 593.8 (662.6) | 131.6 (−22.6, 285.8) | 0.18 | 202.0 (37.9, 366.1) * | 0.28 |
| Dietary behaviour | |||||
| Breakfast 7 | 6.3 (1.8) | 0.5 (0.2, 0.8) ** | 0.24 | 0.2 (−0.1, 0.5) | 0.11 |
| Fruits 8 | 9.4 (7.6) | 1.8 (0.3, 3.2) * | 0.26 | 0.8 (−0.6, 2.1) | 0.21 |
| Vegetables 9 | 26.8 (12.4) | 2.4 (0.0, 4.7) | 0.21 | 3.0 (−0.9, 6.9) | 0.18 |
| Fruit juices 7 | 2.1 (2.3) | −0.7 (−1.1, −0.3) *** | −0.33 | −0.5 (−1.0, 0.0) | −0.28 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages 7 | 2.7 (2.9) | −1.0 (−1.5, −0.6) *** | −0.44 | −1.0 (−1.5, −0.5) *** | −0.40 |
| Unhealthy snacks 7 | 8.7 (6.3) | −2.5 (−3.6, −1.5) *** | −0.33 | −1.5 (−2.9, −0.1) * | −0.17 |
| Quality of life | |||||
| Mobility 10 | 1.5 (0.5) | −0.1 (−0.2, 0.0) | −0.16 | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.0) | −0.24 |
| Self-care 10 | 1.1 (0.3) | −0.1 (−0.1, 0.0) * | −0.20 | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.1) | −0.07 |
| Usual activities 10 | 1.4 (0.5) | 0.0 (−0.1, 0.0) | −0.11 | −0.1 (−0.2, 0.1) | −0.19 |
| Pain/discomfort 10 | 1.8 (0.6) | −0.1 (−0.2, 0.0) * | −0.19 | −0.1 (−0.2, 0.0) * | −0.29 |
| Anxiety/depression 10 | 1.5 (0.6) | −0.2 (−0.3, −0.1) *** | −0.37 | −0.2 (−0.3, −0.1) ** | −0.35 |
| Total 11 | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.1 (0.0, 0.1) ** | 0.24 | 0.1 (0.0, 0.1) * | 0.32 |
| In general 12 | 6.3 (1.4) | 0.5 (0.2, 0.7) *** | 0.42 | 0.7 (0.4, 0.9) *** | 0.57 |
| At that moment 12 | 6.5 (1.3) | 0.3 (0.0, 0.5) | 0.22 | 0.5 (0.2, 0.8) ** | 0.42 |
| Weight and BMI | |||||
| Weight 13 | 105.4 (19.7) | −2.3 (−3.3, −1.3) *** | −0.13 | −1.8 (−2.8, −0.8) *** | −0.11 |
| BMI 14 | 36.2 (5.9) | −0.8 (−1.1, −0.4) *** | −0.13 | −0.6 (−0.9, −0.3) *** | −0.14 |
Notes: Results of linear mixed model analyses (unstructured covariance type); analyses were controlled for background characteristics if they were significantly related to missingness: age, gender, living situation, occupational status, highest completed education and BMI; SD = standard deviation, B is the corrected estimated mean difference in change scores from baseline, CI = confidence interval, significantly different (* p < 0.050; ** p < 0.010; *** p < 0.001); 1 five-point scale (1 = totally disagree; 5 = totally agree), 2 five-point scale (0 = totally disagree; 4 = totally agree), 3 sum score (0 = uncontrolled motivation; 24 = controlled motivation), 4 sum score (0 = no autonomous motivation; 24 = autonomous motivation), 5 outcome measured in minutes per day, 6 minutes per week, 7 frequency per week, 8 pieces per week, 9 serving spoons per week, 10 three-point scale (1 = no disability; 3 = greatly disabled), 11 correction factor (−0.33 = completely unhealthy; 1 = completely healthy), 12 grade (1–10); 13 in kg; 14 in kg/m2.