. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Apr 30.

Published in final edited form as: Inhal Toxicol. 2017 Oct 17;29(9):389–396. doi: 10.1080/08958378.2017.1384084

Table 4.

Biomarkers and targets for periodontal and lung diseases by waterpipe smoke

Biomarkers	Targets
Oxidative stress	Lipid peroxidation products 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, malondialdehyde, F₂-isoprostanes
Inflammatory responses (cytokines and prostaglandins)	NF-kappa B, Toll like receptors, NLRP3 inflammasome IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha
Exosomes/Microparticles	Distinct micro-vesicles
Innate host defense	RAGE receptors (S100A8 and S100A9) Advanced glycation end products Histone deacetylases (HDACs)
DNA methylation/epigenetic modifications	Differential
Proteases	Matrix metalloproteases (MMP-2, MMP-9)
Growth factors and proliferation of cells	VEGF, FGF, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), PDGF, TGF-β
Clinical parameters	PI, PD and CAL Pulmonary function (FEV1, FVC, and ratio)