Fig. 6.

Schematic of hypothesized intracellular signaling cascades by Mg ion stimulation of human bone mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs). Addition of MgSO₄ will increase intracellular Mg concentration in undifferentiated hBMSCs. HIFs are then translocated into the cell nucleus and induce production of Collagen X-α1 and VEGF. In differentiated hBMSCs, Mg ion activates PGC-1a production, which induces the production of VEGF. Abbreviations: HIF, hypoxia-inducible factor; NFAT, nuclear factor of activated T-cells; PGC-1α, peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1α; ERRα, estrogen-related receptor α (Reprinted from Ref. [278], Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier).