. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Jun 1.

Published in final edited form as: Psychol Bull. 2018 Mar 19;144(6):584–640. doi: 10.1037/bul0000132

Table 2.

Summary of Findings of Studies Examining Pre-Event Predictors Included in Systematic Review

Study	Sample	N	Study Design		Independent Variable(s)	Intrusion Variables Reported (DVs)			Intrusion Assessment Timing			Intrusion Measurement			Main Findings	Effect Size (if reported)

			Ran	Pros		Freq	Distress	Other	During	7 day	Other	Monitor	Diary	Other
Traits/Psychopathology
Bomyea & Amir (2012)	Undergrad (excluded trauma history and PTSD sxs)	30		✔	DS-R STAI-T BDI-II	✔			✔			✔			Higher disgust propensity → more intrusive memories; held when anxiety and depression controlled for	f² = .35
Davies & Clark (1998a)^*	Community (excluded previous treatment, suicidality)	90		✔	BDI STAI-T EPQ TSS PICS FBQ	✔			✔	✔		✔	✔		Depression: nonsig.
															Anxiety: nonsig.
															Neuroticism: nonsig.
															Suppression → more in-session intrusive memories
															Beliefs → more diary intrusive memories
															Proneness → more days w/intrusive memories
Hagenaars & Krans (2011)^*	Undergrad (excluded psychopathology)	99		✔	DES-C	✔				✔			✔		Trait dissociation did not significantly predict intrusive memory frequency when state dissociation and state horror included; horror mediated relationship but state dissociation did not
Hagenaars et al. (2008)^*	University (excluded psychopathology)	89		✔	DES-C	✔				✔			✔		Nonsig. association with intrusive memory freq when entered in regression
Halligan et al. (2002)^*	Undergrad	61		✔	CPQ	✔	✔			✔				✔ VMQ	Higher data-driven processing → more intrusive memories and higher intrusive memory distress
Holmes et al. (2004)^*	Undergrad	72	✔	✔	TDQ	✔				✔			✔		Nonsig. association
Kamboj et al. (2014)^*	University/Community (excluded blood phobia, prior treatment)	79		✔	BEM Sex-Role Inventory Gender	✔	✔	✔		✔			✔		Higher communality → more intrusive memories in men only
Kubota et al. (2015)	University (excluded psychopathology)	90	✔	✔	Low mood induction pre-film vs. low mood induction post-film vs. control DASS PTQ	✔	✔		✔	✔		✔			Depressive symptoms→ more frequent and distressing intrusive memories; remained significant after controlling for trait and trauma-related rumination
Kubota et al. (2015)	University (excluded psychopathology)	90	✔	✔		✔	✔		✔	✔		✔			Nonsig. associations between induction conditions and intrusive memory freq or distress
Laposa & Alden (2008)	Undergrad (excluded treatment history, MVA experience)	68		✔	STAI-T WPT BDI-II DES	✔				✔			✔		Higher post-film anxiety mediated all three trait predictors of intrusive memories
Logan & O’Kearney (2012)^*	University/Community	105	✔	✔	STAI-T	✔	✔			✔			✔		Higher trait anxiety → more intrusive memories	r = .22 (post film)
															Nonsig. association between trait anxiety and intrusive memory distress	r = .28 (day 7)
																r = .26 (total)
Mairean & Ceobanu (2016)^*	Undergrad (excluded MVA experience)	148		✔	DES-II WBSI ERQ	✔				✔			✔		Thought suppression → more intrusive memories; mediated by state anxiety
Mairean & Ceobanu (2016)^*	Undergrad (excluded MVA experience)	148		✔	DES-II WBSI ERQ	✔				✔			✔		Nonsig. relationship between trait dissociation and emotion suppression on intrusive memories
Marks & Zoellner (2014)^*	Undergrad	148		✔	BDI-II STAI-T PDS ASI-II ERQ	✔	✔				✔ 24 hr post-extinction			✔ Phone Assessment	Anxiety sensitivity → more intrusive memories post-extinction
Marks & Zoellner (2014)^*	Undergrad	148		✔	BDI-II STAI-T PDS ASI-II ERQ	✔	✔				✔ 24 hr post-extinction			✔ Phone Assessment	Nonsig. associations between all other psychopathology IVs and intrusive memory frequency and distress
Regambal et al. (2009)^*	Undergrad (excluded current treatment, MVA in last 6 mos)	148		✔	BDI-II STAI-T	✔				✔			✔		Higher depression/trait anxiety → more intrusive memories indirectly via peritraumatic processing and maladaptive coping
Schaich et al. (2013)	Undergrad (excluded psychopathology, trauma history, suicidality)	68	✔	✔	Abstract or concrete processing style RRS	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔				✔ Intrusive memory Questionnaire	Trait rumination → more intrusive memories in session in abstract processing condition only; held for frequency, distress, and vividness in week post-film
White & Wild (2016)^*	Undergrad (excluded PTSD & MDD)	50	✔	✔	TDQ-Short PTQ	✔				✔			✔		Nonsig. associations between IVs and DVs
Williams & Moulds (2007a)^*	Undergrad	57		✔	BDI RRS	✔	✔		✔			✔			Higher depression → more distressing intrusive memories	B = .44 (BDI/intrusive memory distress)
Williams & Moulds (2007a)^*	Undergrad	57		✔	BDI RRS	✔	✔		✔			✔			Nonsig. associations between trait rumination and intrusive memory freq, distress	B = .44 (BDI/intrusive memory distress)
Biological Factors
Bisby et al. (2009)	Undergrad/Post-grad (excluded treatment history, trauma history)	48	✔	✔	Alcohol dose (low, high, pbo)	✔				✔			✔		Low dose → more intrusive memories than high dose and pbo
Bisby et al. (2009)		48	✔	✔	Alcohol dose (low, high, pbo)	✔				✔			✔		High dose → fewer intrusive memories than pbo
Bisby et al. (2010)	University (excluded treatment history, trauma history, problematic drinking)	48	✔	✔	Alcohol dose (low, high, placebo), egocentric vs. allocentric	✔				✔			✔		Low dose → more intrusive memories than high dose and pbo
Bisby et al. (2010)		48	✔	✔		✔				✔			✔		High dose → fewer intrusive memories than pbo
Cheung & Bryant (2015)^*	Undergrad (excluded PTSD & MDD)	46		✔	Image valence (neutral, neg.); FKBP5 allele (low, high risk)	✔					✔ 48 hrs			✔ Adapted IES items	High risk allele group → more intrusive memories in both neutral and negative picture conditions	η² = 0.11
Ferree et al. (2011)	Undergrad	40		✔	Menstrual cycle phase; Progesterone, estradiol levels	✔					✔ 48 hrs			✔ Retrospective Interview	Luteal → more intrusive memories than follicular
															Lower progesterone → fewer intrusive memories
															Nonsig. relationship for estradiol and intrusive memories
Hawkins & Cougle (2013)	Undergrad (excluded smokers, MVA experience, blood phobia, current PTSD/MDD	54	✔	✔	PTQ Nicotine vs. pbo	✔	✔		✔	✔		✔	✔		Nicotine → more intrusive memories than pbo	Post: η² = .09
															Low trait rumination + nicotine → more intrusive memories than low trait rumination + pbo via diary
															Nonsig. associations between condition and intrusive memory distress via diary
Rombold et al. (2016a)	University (excluded psychopathology, history of rape or sexual abuse)	118	✔	✔	Yohimbine vs. clonidine vs. pbo	✔	✔	✔			✔ 4 days		✔		Delayed decrease in frequency and vividness for yohimbine	Freq: η² = 0.05
															Delayed decrease in frequency and vividness for yohimbine	Vivid: η² = 0.04
															Nonsig. effects on distress
Rombold et al. (2016b)	University (excluded psychopathology, history of rape or sexual abuse)	60	✔	✔	HCT vs. pbo Menstrual phase	✔	✔	✔		✔			✔		Nonsig. associations between any IVs and intrusive memory DVs
Soni et al. (2013)	University (excluded treatment history, blood phobia)	41		✔	Menstrual cycle phase	✔	✔	✔			✔ 3 days		✔		Low estradiol + high progesterone → more image-based intrusive memories
															Nonsig. effect of estradiol and progesterone alone on intrusive memories
															Nonsig. effects on distress, vividness
Wegerer et al. (2014)	University (excluded psychopathology, history of severe interpersonal violence)	37		✔	Estradiol and progesterone levels	✔	✔	✔			✔ Post-exp + 2 days after			✔ IMQ	Lower estradiol → stronger intrusive memories partially explained by differences in fear conditionability
Wegerer et al. (2014)		37		✔	Estradiol and progesterone levels	✔	✔	✔			✔ Post-exp + 2 days after			✔ IMQ	Nonsig. association between progesterone and intrusive memories
Associative Cues
Ehlers et al. (2006)	University (excluded trauma history, severe depression, blood phobia)	62		✔	Perceptual priming (speed of blurred picture identification)	✔					✔ 3 mos			✔ IMQ	Enhanced encoding of cues → more intrusive memories
Michael & Ehlers (2007)	University (excluded trauma history, severe depression, blood phobia)	92	✔	✔	Perceptual priming (ID rates, priming index); memory elaboration vs. control	✔					✔ 1 mo			✔ MTQ	Enhanced encoding of cues pre-picture stories → more intrusive memories in control condition but not in elaboration condition	η² = 0.046
Meyer et al. (2013)	Undergrad (excluded “psych complaints”, substance abuse, trauma history)	82		✔	Performance on Spatial Contextual Cueing Task	✔	✔			✔			✔		Better learning performance → fewer intrusive memories; nonsig. effect on intrusive memory distress	r = −.28 (total)
Meyer et al. (2013)		82		✔	Performance on Spatial Contextual Cueing Task	✔	✔			✔			✔			r = −.33 (image-based intrusive memories only)
Sundermann et al. (2013)^*	Community (excluded blood phobia, depression, trauma history, freq exposure to graphic material)	51		✔	Perceptual priming (ID rates)	✔	✔				✔ wks mos			✔ Phone Interview	Enhanced priming → more intrusive memories at 2 wks but not at 3 mo follow-up	η² = 0.08 (2 wk)
Negative Appraisals
Brown et al. (2012)	Undergrad	33	✔	✔	Self-efficacy (high vs. low)	✔			✔		✔ 24 hr	✔		✔ Phone Assessment	Low self-efficacy → more intrusive memories	d = 0.62 (post-film)
Brown et al. (2012)	Undergrad	33	✔	✔	Self-efficacy (high vs. low)	✔			✔		✔ 24 hr	✔		✔ Phone Assessment	Low self-efficacy → more intrusive memories	d = 0.80 (24 hr)
Lang et al. (2009)	University	40	✔	✔	+ or - cognitive bias modification	✔	✔			✔			✔		+ CBM → fewer thought intrusive memories; nonsig. differences in image-based intrusive memories and distress
Wilksch & Nixon (2010)	University	49		✔	Risk of interpreting intrusive memories negatively (High risk, low risk groups ID’ed via Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory)	✔	✔		✔	✔		✔	✔		High risk group → more intrusive memories after controlling for depression, PTSD, and maladaptive cognitions both in session and via diary	g = 0.87 (in session)
																g = 0.52 (diary)
															High risk group → higher intrusive memory distress during session only	g = 1.27 (1 wk)
																g = 0.63 (distress in session)
Woud et al. (2013)	Community (excluded psychopathology, trauma history)	54	✔	✔	+ or - cognitive bias modification	✔	✔			✔			✔		+ CBM → lower intrusive memory distress; nonsig. differences in frequency	d = 0.79 (intrusion-related distress)
Attentional Control/Working Memory Capacity
Hagenaars & Putman (2011)	University (excluded psychopathology, MVA experience)	43		✔	ACS TIS	✔				✔			✔		Increased tonic immobility → more intrusive memories for low but not high attentional control group	r = .48
James et al. (2016)	University/Community (excluded psychopathology)	56	✔	✔	Tetris or no task pre-film	✔				✔			✔	✔ IPT	Nonsig. differences in intrusive memory frequency
Verwoerd et al. (2011)	Undergrad	85		✔	Subtest of CVLT	✔				✔			✔		Weak ability to resist proactive interference → more intrusive memories after controlling for neuroticism	r = .24
Wessel et al. (2008)	Undergrad	104		✔	Cognitive control (random number generator task; RNG)	✔	✔	✔			✔ 48 hr		✔		Better cognitive control via RNG → more intrusive memories
Wessel et al. (2008)	Undergrad	104		✔	Cognitive control (random number generator task; RNG)	✔	✔	✔			✔ 48 hr		✔		Nonsig. effects on intrusive memory distress and vividness when depression and emotionality controlled for
General Mental Imagery
Davies & Clark (1998a)^*	Community (excluded previous treatment, suicidality)	90		✔	MIRQ	✔			✔	✔		✔	✔		Nonsig. association
Krans et al. (2011)	University (excluded psychopathology, MVA experience)	59	✔	✔	Film vs. imagery SUIS VVQ	✔				✔			✔		Higher use of imagery → fewer intrusive memories	r = −.26 (SUIS)
															Visual processing style → more intrusive memories in imagery condition only	r = .41 (VVQ)
															Nonsig. associations between intrusive memories and film vs. verbal report	r = .41 (VVQ)
Morina et al. (2013)^*	Undergrad (excluded psychopathology, trauma history)	67		✔	QMI	✔			✔		✔ 5 days		✔	✔ Intrusive memory Questionnaire	Higher mental imagery → more uncued intrusive memories in session and via diary
Morina et al. (2013)^*	Undergrad (excluded psychopathology, trauma history)	67		✔	QMI	✔			✔		✔ 5 days		✔	✔ Intrusive memory Questionnaire	Nonsig. Association between mental imagery and cued intrusive memories during session
Other
Belcher & Kangas (2015)	Undergrad/Community (excluded psychopathology)	101	✔	✔	AMT scores (past + future event specificity)	✔				✔			✔		More event specificity → fewer intrusive memories

Study Quality: “Ran” = randomized, “Pros” = prospective; DS-R: Disgust Scale-Revised; STAI-T: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait; BDI-II: Beck Depression Inventory-II; EPQ: Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire; TSS: Thought Suppression Scale; PICS: Proneness to Intrusive Cognitions Scale; FBQ: Fire Beliefs Questionnaire; DES-C: Dissociative Experiences Scale-C; CPQ: Cognitive Processing Questionnaire; TDQ: Trait Dissociation Questionnaire; DASS: Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-D; PTQ: Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire; WPT: Wonderlich Personnel Test; WBSI: White Bear Suppression Inventory; ERQ: Emotion Regulation Questionnaire; PDS: Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale; ASI-II: Anxiety Sensitivity Index-II; RRS: Ruminative Response Scale; HCT: hydrocortisone; PTCI: Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory; ACS: Attentional Control Scale; TIS: Tonic Immobility Scale; CVLT: California Verbal Learning Test; MIRQ: Mental Imagery Ratings Questionnaire; SUIS: Spontaneous Use of Imagery Scale; VVQ: Verbal Visualizer Questionnaire; QMI: Questionnaire upon Mental Imagery; AMT: Autobiographical Memory Test; IPT: Intrusion Provocation Task; IMQ: Intrusive Memory Questionnaire; MTQ: Memories & Thoughts Questionnaire; VMQ: Videotape Memory Questionnaire

Study included multiple times in table due to presence of multiple predictors of intrusions