Table 1.

A summary of some parasites and pathogens of the honeybees.

Classification	Pathogenic characteristics	Species	Cause of disease	Susceptible developmental stages	References
Virus	Existence with no obvious symptoms until activated under certain environmental conditions, resulting in strong pathogenicity	Black queen cell virus	Black queen cell disease	Larvae and pupae	Ellis and Munn, 2005; Zhang et al., 2012
		Deformed wing virus	Deformed wing disease	Various life stages	Bailey and Ball, 1991
		Israeli acute paralysis virus	Israeli acute paralysis disease	Various life stages	de Miranda et al., 2010
		Sac brood virus	Sacbrood bee disease	Various life stages	Bailey and Fernando, 2010; Park et al., 2016
		Chronic bee paralysis virus	Chronic bee paralysis disease	Adults	Bailey and Woods, 1974
		Kashmir bee virus	Kashmir bee disease	Various life stages	Ellis and Munn, 2005
		Acute bee paralysis virus	Acute bee paralysis disease	Various life stages	Bailey, 1981
		Tobacco ringspot virus	Unclear	At least adult worker bees	Li et al., 2014
Bacteria	Long infection time, fast propagation speed and serious harm	Spiroplasma apis	Spiroplasmosis	Adults	Mouches et al., 1983
		Spiroplasma melliferum	Spiroplasmosis	Adults	Clark et al., 1985
		Paenibacillus larvae	American foulbrood disease	Larvae	Morse and Nowogrodzki, 1978
		Melissococcus plutonius	European foulbrood disease	Larvae	Morse and Nowogrodzki, 1978
Fungi	Frequent association with rain, humidity and unstable temperature	Ascosphaera apis	Chalkbrood disease	Larvae	Mehr et al., 1978
		Aspergillus flavus	Aspergillus flavus disease	Various life stages	Chen, 2013a
Parasite	Ingestion of nutrients in honeybees	Nosema ceranae	Microsporidiosis	Adults	Sak et al., 2004
		Nosema apis	Microsporidiosis	Adults	Sak et al., 2004
		Tropilaelaps	Acariasis of bees	Larvae	Chen, 2013b
		Varroa destructor	Acariasis of bees	Larvae, pupae and adults	Martin, 2001