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. 2018 May 8;8:7121. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-24909-8

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Study design and experimental stimuli. (a) In a longitudinal study design, participants were tested before and after the onset of formal reading instruction at school. (b) Stimulus sets used in the artificial-letter training and the implicit audiovisual target detection task. Participants were randomly assigned to learn one of two matched sets of grapheme–phoneme correspondences. In a simultaneous EEG-fMRI session, correct (congruent condition) and incorrect (incongruent condition) pairs of trained graphemes and phonemes were presented to the participants. Phonemes are presented in phonetic notation; phonemic notation from left to right for training set 1 is /n/, /g/, /w/, /k/, /ä/, and /sch/ and for training set 2 /r/, /f/, /l/, /pf/, /ö/, and /s/.