Table 2. Summary of the studies on anti-inflammatory effects and related mechanisms of AR.
| Model | Cell line/species | Dose | Effect | Mechanism | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LPS-induced inflammation | RAW264.7 | 0.01 to 1 μmol/L | Suppression of NO production | Inhibition of iNOS protein expression; suppression of IκBα phosphorylation and p65 nuclear translocation | 30 |
| 0.01 to 1 μmol/L | NR | Decrease of TNF-α production and mRNA level; inhibition of binding between AP-1 and its consensus oligonucleotide; inhibition of phosphorylation and activation of MAPKs | 36 | ||
| 0.1 to 10 μmol/L | Inhibition of NO and PGE2 production | Reduction of iNOS and COX-2 expression; inhibition of NF-κB expression and binding; Suppression of phosphorylation of IκB, IKK and activation of MAPKs | 33 | ||
| 0.3 to 32 μmol/L | Inhibition of NO production | Inhibition of TNF-α production | 22 | ||
| 10 to 50 μmol/L | Inhibition of iNOS activity; slight inhibition on COX-2 activity | Suppression of iNOS expression, IL-1β and IL-6 gene expression; reduction of phosphorylation and nucleus translocation of JAK, STAT1 and STAT3 | 4 | ||
| 50 μmol/L | Inhibition of iNOS activity | Suppression of iNOS expression; promotion of ubiqitination and degradation of iNOS by CHIP-associated proteasomes | 32 | ||
| 3 to 100 μmol/L | Inhibition of iNOS activity; no inhibition of COX-2 activity | Suppression of iNOS expression; inhibition of TNF-α and IL-6 production | 31 | ||
| U937 | 1 to 16 μmol/L | NR | Inhibition of TNF-α production | 22 | |
| Mice peritoneal macrophage | 10 to 20 μmol/L | NR | Decrease of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α level with increased IL-10 and CD204; inhibition of NF-κB activation and p65 nuclear translocation; suppression of PI3K and AKT phosphorylation | 2 | |
| Silica-induced inflammation | RAW264.7 | 0.1 to 10 μmol/L | Inhibition of ROS production | NR | 25 |
| Concanavalin A and LPS induced proliferation | Mice primary splenocyte | 0.5 to 16 μmol/L | Inhibition of T cell and B cell proliferation | NR | 22 |
| Anti-CD3/CD28 Ab induced proliferation | Primary human T lymphocyte | 8.25 to 25 μmol/L | Inhibition of lymphocytes proliferation | Suppression of IL-2 and IFN-γ production and gene expression; decrease of NF-AT-mediated reporter gene expression | 3 |
| TGF-β1-induced EMT-like changes in renal tubular epithelial cells | Human proximal tubular cell line HK-2 | 0.5 to 1 μmol/L | Protection against TGF-β1-induced MCP-1 upregulation and the resulting EMT-like phenotypic changes | Inactivation of the ROS/ERK1/2 MAPK/NF-κB pathway | 122 |
| TNF-α induced inflammation | BEAS-2B cells | 50 μmol/L | NR | Inhibition of PI3K/AKT and Ras/MAPK pathways; inhibition of NF-κB activation | 35 |
| Acetic acid-induced inflammation | Rats | 12.5, 25, 100 mg/kg, po, single dose | Decrease of writhing response and capillary permeability accentuation | NR | 25 |
| Arachidonic acid-induced ear edema | Rats | 0.1–1 mg/ear painting, single dose | Decrease of edema volume, tissue MPO and EPO activities | NR | 25 |
| Carrageenan-induced paw edema | Rats | 10, 30, 100 mg/kg, po, single dose | Decrease of paw edema volumn | NR | 25 |
| LPS-Induced acute lung injury | Rats | 30, 100 mg/kg, iv, single dose | Reduced histological damage, myeloperoxidase activity, and wet-to-dry weight ratio of lung tissues | Decrease of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels; down-regulation of NF-κB and p65 expression; activation of AMPKa | 37 |
| Mice | 50 mg/kg, ip, single dose | Decreased infiltration of inflammatory cells into BALF; production of pro-inflammatory cytokines; reduced the malondialdehyde level; increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and glutathione peroxidase/glutathione disulfide ratio in the lung | Significantly reduction of NO production and iNOS expression; enhancement of heme oxygenase-1 expression, and decrease of MAPKs phosphorylation | 27 | |
| LPS-induced colitis | Mice | 5 mg/kg, ip, single dose | NR | Suppression of blood IL-1β and TNF-α level TNBS-induced colitis | 2 |
| Mice | 30, 60 mg/kg, po, qd, 3 days | Reduced loss of body weight, colon shortening, macroscopic scores and MPO activity | Inhibition of IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 expression and increase of IL-10 and CD204 expression; inhibition of NF-κB activation, as well as PI3K, AKT and IKKβ phosphorylation | 2 | |
| Dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis | Mice | 25, 50 mg/kg, po, qd, 10 days | Reduced loss of body weight, disease index and histological damage; recovered intestinal epithelial cells; decreased infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages | Down-regulation of cytokines expressions, including TNF-α and IL-6 at protein and mRNA levels; suppression of MAPKs phosphorylation and NF-κB activation; blockage of Th1 and Th17 responses; inhibition of mTORC1 associated with down-regulation of Th1/ Th17 responses | 26,123 |
| Convection enhanced delivery induced brain injury | Mice | 20, 40, 80 mg/kg, po, qd, 14 days | Reduced brain water content and hematoma; accelerated wound closure; reduced number of allograft inflammatory factor and MPO-positive cells | Decrease of number of allograft inflammatory factor and MPO-positive cells, TNF-α and IL-6 level; Elevation of IL-10 level | 28 |
Abbreviation: iv: intravenous administration; po: oral administration; ip: intraperitoneal; qd: once daily. NR: not reported.