. 2018 Mar 30;10(4):436. doi: 10.3390/nu10040436

Table 2.

Association between socioeconomic status and dietary patterns in children and adolescents from High Human Development Countries in cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies with cross-sectional analysis.

Country	Survey Year	Study Location	HDI	Age Range	Sample Size	DAM/DPM	SES Indicator	DP Identified	Association of SES with DP		Reference
Norway	2007	County	0.94 (2010)	9–10	924 461 B 463 G	FFQ/PCA	Parent’s education	(a) “Snacking” (b) Junk/convenient” (c) Varied Norwegian” (d) “Dieting”	(a) Inverse (b) U shaped (c) None (d) None		[40]
Australia	2007	National	0.93 (2010)	2–8	2287 1166 B 1121 G	2-day, 24-h DR/PCA	Parent’s education	(a) “Healthy, meat and vegetable”	(a) Positive		[43]
Australia	2007	National	0.93 (2010)	2–8	2287 1166 B 1121 G	2-day, 24-h DR/PCA	Parent’s education	(b) “Combination”	(b) Positive		[43]
Australia	2008	National	0.93 (2010)	12–18	764 397 B 367 G	FFQ/PCA	Family income	(a) “Fruit, salad, cereals, and fish”	(a) None		[23]
								(b) “High fat and sugar”	(b) None
								(c) “Vegetables”	(c) None
Australia	2003–2004	Perth	0.90 (2000)	14	1613 826 B 787 G	FFQ/FA	Maternal education and family income	(a) “Healthy”	(a) Positive (maternal education)		[27]
								(a) “Healthy”	(a) None (income)
								(b) “Western”	(b) None (maternal education)
								(b) “Western”	(b) Inverse (income)
Scotland	2006	National	0.91 (2010)	5–17	1233	FFQ/PCA	Main food provider education and family income	5–11-year-old			[44]
									Boys	Girls
					5–11 years old (381 B, 340 G) 12–17 years old (250 B, 262 G)			(a) “Fruit and vegetables”	(a) None (education)	(a) Positive (education, income)
								(a) “Fruit and vegetables”	(a) Positive (income)	(a) Positive (education, income)
								(b) “Snacks”	(b) Inverse (education, income)	(b) None (education)
								(b) “Snacks”	(b) Inverse (education, income)	(b) Inverse (income)
								(c) “Fish and sauce”	(c) None (education, income)	(c) NA
								(d) “Puddings”	(d) NA	(d) Positive (education, income)
					12–17 years old (250 B, 262 G)			12–17 years old
									Boys	Girls
								(e) “Vegetables”	(e) positive (education, income)	(e) Positive (education, income)
								(f) “Fruits”	(f) NA	(f) None (education, income)
								(g) “Puddings”	(g) None (education)	(g) Inverse (education, income)
									(g) Inverse (income)	(g) Inverse (education, income)
								(h) “Starchy food and drinks”	(h) None (education, income)	(h) NA
Spain	2007–2008	Balearic Islands	0.87	12–17	1231 574 B 657 G	FFQ and 24-h DR/PCA	Parent’s education	(a) “Western” (b) “Mediterranean” (c) “Dairy products” (d) “Fast food and sweets”	(a) None (b) None (c) Positive (d) Inverse		[45]
Spain	1998–2000	National	0.83 (2000)	2–24	3534 1629 B 1905 G	FFQ and 24-h DR/PCA	Maternal or parental education	(a) “Snacky”	(a) Positive		[64]
Spain	1998–2000	National	0.83 (2000)	2–24	3534 1629 B 1905 G	FFQ and 24-h DR/PCA	Maternal or parental education	(b) “Healthy”	(b) Positive		[64]
Canada	2004	National	0.87 (2000)	2–18	10,038 5119 B 4919 G	1-day, 24-h DR/CA	Household education and family income	2–5 years old			[53]
									Boys	Girls
								(a) “Fruit drink” (n = 315)	None (education and income)
								(b) “Fruit juice” (n = 320)
								(c) “Milk” (n = 422)
								(d) “High fat milk” (n = 268)
								(e) “Moderate” (n = 825)
								6–11 years old
									Boys	Girls
								(f) “Soft drink” (n = 412)	High fat milk “was more frequent in lower income None (education)	None (education, income)
								(g) “Fruit drink” (n = 601)
								(h) “Fruit juice” (n = 398)
								(i) “Milk” (n = 670)
								(j) “High fat milk” (n = 283)
								(l) “Moderate” (n = 1249)
								12–18 years old
									Boys	Girls
								(m) “Soft drink” (n = 648)	None (education, income)	None (education, income)
								(n) “Fruit drink” (n = 701)
								(o) “Milk” (n = 783)
								(p) “Moderate” (n = 2143)
England	1991–1992/1998–1999	Avon	0.87 (2000)	7	6056 3131 B 2925 G	FFQ/CA	Maternal education	(a) “Processed” (n = 4177)	(a) Inverse		[20]
								(b) “Plant based” (n = 2065)	(b) Positive
								(c) “Traditional British” (n = 2037)	(c) None
England	1991–1992/2004–2006	Avon	0.87 (2000)	13	3951 1916 B 2035 G	FFQ/PCA	Maternal education	(a) “Traditional/health-conscious”	(a) Positive		[46]
								(b) “Processed”	(b) Inverse
								(c) “Snacks/sugared drinks”	(c) Inverse
								(d) “Vegetarian”	(d) Positive
England	1998–1999	Avon	0.87 (2000)	4 and 7	4 years old (6592) 3411 B 3171 G	FFQ/PCA	Maternal education	4 years old			[65]
								(a) “Junk”	(a) Inverse
								(b) “Health conscious”	(b) Positive
								(c) “Traditional”	(c) None
					7 years old (6215) 3196 B 3019 G			7 years old
								(a) “Junk”	(a) Inverse
								(b) “Health conscious”	(b) Positive
								(c) “Traditional”	(c) None
Greece	2007–2011	Creete	0.87 (2000)	4	683	FFQ/PCA	Parent’s education	(a) “Mediterranean (b) “Snacky” (c) “Western””	(a) None (b) Inverse (c) None		[66]
New Zealand	1995–1997 2002–2004	Auckland	0.87 (2000)	3.5–7	550 (3.5 years); 591 (7 years)	FFQ/PCA	Maternal education	(a) “Junk”	(a) None		[67]
								(b) “Traditional”	(b) None
								(c) “Healthy”	(c) None
Finland	2003–2005	Oulu and Tampere	0.86 (2000)	3 and 6	3 years old (708)	3-day FD/CA	Maternal education	3 years old			[68]
					3 years old (708)			(a) “Fast food, sweet” (n = 387)	(a) Inverse
					6 years old (841)			6 years old
					6 years old (841)			(a) “Fast food, sweet” (n = 198)	(a) None
Portugal	2009–2010	Porto	0.82 (2010)	4	3422 1749 B 1673 G	FFQ/LCA	Maternal education Family income	(a) Energy-dense foods dietary pattern (n = 1400) (b) Snacking (n = 484) (c) Healthier (n = 1538)	(a) Inverse (education) (a) None (income) (b) Inverse (education) (b) None (income) (c) NA		[69]
Portugal	2006–2007	Porto	0.82 (2010)	5–10	1976 985 B 991 G	FFQ/PCA	Maternal education	(a) “Vegetables, pulses, fruit, olive oil”	(a) Positive		[49]
								(b) “Fish, meat, processed meats, eggs, and starchy foods”	(b) Positive
								(c) “Vegetable soup, olive oil, butter, starchy foods, and bread”	(c) Positive
								(d) “Fast-food, SSB, and pastry”	(d) Inverse
European cities	2006–2007	Athens, Dortmund, Ghent, Lille, Rome, Stockholm, Vienna, and Zaragoza	Mean 0.81 (2010)	12.5–17.5	2213 1021 B 1192 G	24-h DR HELENA-Dietary Assessment Tool (DIAT)/PCA	Parent’s education	Boys (a) “Western” (b) Traditional European (c) Breakfast Girls (d) “Western” (e) Traditional European (f) Breakfast (g) Monotonous	Boys (a) Inverse (maternal educational) (a) None (paternal education) (b) Positive (parent’s education) (c) Positive (parent’s education) Girls (d) Inverse (parent’s education) (e) Positive (parent’s education) (f) None (parent’s education) (g) None (parent’s education)		[47]
Australia	2011–2013	Adelaide	0.94 (2010)	9–11	508 236 B 272 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) None (income and parent’s education)		[70]
Canada	2011–2013	Ottawa	0.89 (2010)	9–11	551 230 B 321 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) Positive (income) (b) None (parent’s education)		[70]
Finland	2011–2013	Helsinki, Espoo and Vantaa)	0.87 (2010)	9–11	495 235 B 260 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) None (income and parent’s education)		[70]
USA	2011–2013	Baton Rouge	0.90 (2010)	9–11	588 254 B 334 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) None (income and parent’s education)		[70]
Portugal	2011–2013	Porto	0.82 (2010)	9–11	667 294 B 373 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) Positive (income) (b) None (parent’s education)		[70]
United Kington	2011–2013	Bath and North East Somerset)	0.85 (2010)	9–11	465 208 B 257 G	FFQ/PCA	Household income and parent’s education.	(a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy	(a) Inverse (parent’s education) (a) None (income) (b) Positive (parent’s education) (b) None (income)		[70]
Poland	2010–2011	Central and north-eastern Poland	0.80 (2010)	13–18	1176 551 B 625 G	FFQ/CA	Parent’s education	(a) Low-Fiber” DP (n = 446) (b) “Average-Fiber” DP (n = 286) (c) “High-Fiber” DP (n = 444)	(a, b) NA (c) Positive (parent’s education)		[48]

B, boys; G, girls; CA, cluster analysis; DAM, dietary assessment method; DPM, dietary pattern method; 24-h DR, 24-h dietary recall; FA, factor analysis; FD, food diary; FFQ, food frequency questionnaires; NA, not applicable; PCA, principal component analysis; LCA, latent class analysis.