Table 3.
Association between socioeconomic status and dietary patterns in children and adolescents from Medium Human Development Countries and Low Human Development Countries in cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies with cross-sectional analysis.
| Country | Survey Year | Study Location | HDI | Age Range | Sample Size | DAM/DPM | SES Indicator | DP Identified | Association of SES with DP | Ref. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medium Human Development Countries | ||||||||||||
| Portugal | 2003–2004 | Porto | 0.78 (2000) |
13 | 1489 687 B 802 G |
FFQ/CA | Parent’s education | (a) “Healthier” (n = 239) (b) “Dairy products” (n = 442) (c) “Fast food and sweets” (n = 212) |
(a) Positive (b) Positive (c) Inverse |
[38] | ||
| Malaysia | 2014 | District Selangor | 0.78 (2014) |
13–17 | 2480 882 B 1366 G |
FFQ/PCA | Parent’s education and family income | (a) “Fruit and vegetable” (b) “Sugar and fat” (c) “Meat and Chicken” |
(a) Positive (education) (a) None (income) (b) Positive (education) (b) None (income) (c) Positive (education, income) |
[32] | ||
| Malaysia | - | Kelantan | 0.78 (2014) |
12–19 | 454 204 B 250 G |
FFQ/PCA | Parent’s education and family income | (a) “Western-based” (b) “Health-based” (c) “Local-based” |
Malay adolescents (a) Inverse (income) (a) None (maternal and paternal education) (b) None ((maternal and paternal education and income) (c) None ((maternal and paternal education and income) Chinese adolescents (a) None ((maternal and paternal education and income) (b) Positive (maternal education) (b) None (paternal education and income) (c) None (maternal and paternal education and income) |
[41] | ||
| England | 1991–1992 1994–1995 | Avon | 0.77 (1990) |
3 | 7814 4019 B 3795 G |
FFQ/PCA | Maternal education | (a) “Junk” | (a) Inverse | [22] | ||
| (b) “Healthy” | (b) Positive | |||||||||||
| (c) “Traditional” | (c) Positive | |||||||||||
| (d) “Snacks” | (d) Positive | |||||||||||
| England | 1993–1994 | Avon | 0.77 (1990) |
2 | 9599 4963 B 4636 G |
FFQ/PCA | Maternal education | (a) “Family foods” (b) “Sweet and easy” (c) “Healthy conscious” |
(a) Positive (b) Inverse (c) Positive |
[25] | ||
| Brazil | 2008 | Salvador | 0.70 (2010) |
7–14 | 1136 577 B 559 G |
FFQ/PCA | Maternal education and family income | (a) “Obesogenic” (b) “Traditional” |
(a) Positive (education, income) (b) None (education, income) |
[31] | ||
| Brazil | 2009–2010 | Diamantina | 0.70 (2010) |
5 | 232 - | FFQ/PCA | Maternal education and per capita income | (a) “Mixed diet” (b) “Snack” (c) “Unhealthy” |
(a) None (education) (a) Positive (income) (b) Positive (education) (b) Inverse (income) (c) None (education) (c) Positive (income) |
[30] | ||
| Brazil | 2011 | Montes Claros | 0.70 (2010) |
11–17 | 535 171 B 364 G |
FFQ/PCA | Parent’s education and family income | (a) “Junk food” (b) “Healthy” (c) “Traditional” |
(a) None (education) (a) Positive (income) (b) None (education, income) (c) None (education, income) |
[33] | ||
| Brazil | 2012–2013 | Viçosa | 0.70 (2010) |
8–9 | 328 135 B 193 G |
3-day FD PCA | Maternal education | (a) “Sweetened drinks and snacks” (b) “Egg-dairy” |
(a) Positive (b) Positive |
[52] | ||
| Brazil | 2008–2009 | National | 0.70 | 12.5–17.5 | 3194 1635 B 1559 G |
2-day FD/PCA | Maternal education and family income | Boys (a) “Traditional Brazilian” (b) “Western” (c) “Snacks” (d) “Healthy” Girls (e) “Western” (f) “Breakfast” (g) “Sweets and Fried Foods” (h) “Traditional Brazilian” |
Boys (a) Positive (maternal education and income) (b) Positive (maternal education and income) (c) None (income) (c) None (maternal education) (d) None (maternal education and income) Girls (e) Positive (income and maternal education) (f) None (income and maternal education) (g) None (income and maternal education) (h) Inverse (income) h) None (maternal education) |
[47] | ||
| Brazil | 2014 | Campinas | 0.70 (2010) |
2–9 | 929 | FFQ/FA | Maternal education and family income | (a) “Traditional” (b) “Ultraprocessed” |
NA (a) Inverse maternal education (b)None (family income) |
[71] | ||
| India | 1997–1998 2006–2007 | Mysore | 0.52 (2010) |
9.5 | 538 254 B 284 G |
FFQ PCA | Parent’s education | (a) “Snack and fruit” | (a) None | [50] | ||
| (b) “Lacto-vegetarian” | (b) None | |||||||||||
| Lebanon | 2011–2012 | National | 0.77 (2014) |
2–5 | 525 281 B 244 G |
24-h DR/FA | Maternal education | (a) Fast food and Sweets (b) Traditional Lebanese |
(a) Inverse (maternal education) (b) Positive (maternal education) |
[72] | ||
| China | 2009 | Beijing and four provincial capital cities including Haerbin, Jinan, Shanghai, and Guangzhou | 0.66 (2010) |
6–13 | 5267 2643 B 2624 G |
24-h DR/FA and CA | Parent’s education and monthly household income | (a) “Healthy” (n = 3679) (b) “Transitive diet” (high positive loadings on organ meat, pork, seafood, processed meat, edible fungi and algae and light vegetables) (n = 1395) (c) “Western” (m = 193) |
High Healthy DP was more frequent in lower parent’s education and High “transitive diet” and “western” DP was more frequent in higher parent’s education. High transitive diet was more frequent in higher income |
[51] | ||
| China | 2010 | Taiwan | 0.66 (2010) |
5 | 18046 9463 B 8583 G |
FFQ/PCA | Parent’s education and family monthly income | (a) Unhealthy non-core food (b) “Health-conscious food” |
(a) Inverse (parent’s education and income) (b) Positive (parent’s education and income) |
[60] | ||
| Brazil | 2011–2013 | São Paulo | 0.70 (2010) |
9–11 | 501 245 B 256 G | FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) Inverse (parent’s education) (a) None (income) (b) None (income and parent’s education) |
[70] | ||
| Colombia | 2011–2013 | Bogota | 0.69 (2010) |
9–11 | 914 454 B 460 G |
FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) None (income and parent’s education) (b) None (parent’s education) (b) Positive (income) |
[70] | ||
| China | 2011–2013 | Tianjin | 0.66 (2010) |
9–11 | 542 288 B 254 G |
FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) None (income and parent’s education) (b) None (parent’s education and income) |
[70] | ||
| South Africa | 2011–2013 | Cape Town | 0.60 (2010) |
9–11 | 423 167 B 256 G |
FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) None (parent’s education and income) |
[70] | ||
| India | 2011–2013 | Bangalore | 0.52 (2010) |
9–11 | 602 282 B 320 G |
FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) Inverse (income) (a) None (parent’s education) (b) Positive (parent’s education and income) |
[70] | ||
| Low Human Development Country | ||||||||||||
| Kenya | 2011–2013 | Nairobi | 0.47 (2010) |
9–11 | 552 257 B 295 G |
FFQ/PCA | Household income and parent’s education | (a) Unhealthy (b) Healthy |
(a) Inverse (income and parent’s education) (b) None (parent’s education and income) |
[70] | ||
B, boys; G, girls; DAM, dietary assessment method; DPM, dietary pattern method; 24-h DR, 24-h dietary recall; FA, factor analysis; FD, food diary; FFQ, food frequency questionnaires; PCA, principal component analysis.