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. 2018 Apr 12;10(4):477. doi: 10.3390/nu10040477

Table A3.

Evidence for and against addiction criteria.

Characteristic Supporting Evidence Null/Contrary Evidence
Brain changes Animal studies:

  1. Adams (2015) [41]

  2. Colantuoni (2001) [47]

  3. Duarte (2014) [54]

  4. Furlong (2014) [42] study 2

  5. Johnson (2010) [48] study 2

  6. Johnson (2010) [48] study 4

  7. Le Merrer (2006) [51] study 3

  8. Le Merrer (2006) [51] study 4

  9. Mary Brown (2015) [55]

  10. Newman (2013) [52]

  11. Pérez-Ortiz (2016) [56]

  12. Sharma (2013) [46] study 3

Human studies:
  • 13.

    Cambridge (2013) [40]

  • 14.

    Daubenmier (2014) [53]

  • 15.

    Davis (2013) [49]

  • 16.

    Davis (2014) [50]

  • 17.

    De Ridder (2016) [58]

  • 18.

    Feldstein Ewing (2017) [59]

  • 19.

    Franken (2016) [60]

  • 20.

    Gearhardt (2011) [12]

  • 21.

    Imperatori (2015) [57]

 Adams (2015) [41] (animal study)
Feldstein Ewing (2017) [59] (human study)
Preoccupation Human studies:

  1. Merlo (2009) [18].

  2. Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 1.

  3. Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 2.

 N/A
Impaired control Animal studies:

  1. Furlong (2014) [42] study 1—Spending a significant amount of time acquiring, using, or recovering from a substance.

  2. Lenoir (2007) [43]—Craving.

  3. Mary Brown (2015) [55]—Spending a significant amount of time acquiring, using, or recovering from a substance.

Human studies:
  • 4.

    Burmeister (2013) [62]—Consuming a substance in greater amounts or over longer periods of time than intended.

  • 5.

    Davis (2011) [39]—Craving.

  • 6.

    Davis (2013) [49]—Craving.

  • 7.

    Davis (2014) [50]—Craving.

  • 8.

    Feldstein Ewing (2017) [59]—Craving.

  • 9.

    Lent (2012) [63]—Craving.

  • 10.

    Merlo (2009) [18]—Consuming a substance in greater amounts or over longer periods of time than intended.

  • 11.

    Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 1—Craving.

  • 12.

    Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 2—Craving.

 N/A
Social impairment Animal studies:

  1. Adams (2015) [41]—Continually using a substance despite its effects causing or exacerbating persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems.

Human studies:
  • 2.

    Lent (2012) [63]—Giving up or reducing social, occupational, or recreational activities.

 N/A
Risky use Animal studies:

  1. Johnson (2010) [48] study 3—Continually using a substance in situations in which it is physically dangerous.

 N/A
Tolerance/Withdrawal Animal studies:

  1. Johnson (2010) [48] study 1—Tolerance.

  2. Mangabeira (2015) [65]—Withdrawal.

  3. Pickering (2009) [66] study 3—Withdrawal.

  4. Sharma (2013) [46] study 2—Withdrawal.

Human studies:
  • 5.

    De Ridder (2016) [58]—Withdrawal.

  • 6.

    Lent (2012) [63]—Tolerance; Withdrawal.

  • 7.

    Markus (2017) [44]—Tolerance; Withdrawal.

  • 8.

    Spring (2008) [64]—Tolerance.

 Yakovenko (2011) [67]
study 1
Yakovenko (2011) [67]
study 2 (animal studies)
Chronicity Animal studies:

  1. McGee (2010) [68].

  2. Pickering (2009) [66] study 3.

 Konkolÿ Thege (2015) [5] (human study)
Relapse Animal studies:

  1. Pickering (2009) [66] study 3.

  2. Sharma (2013) [46] study 1.

 N/A
Overall Human studies:

  1. Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 1.

  2. Tuomisto (1999) [61] study 2.

  3. Schulte (2015) [13] study 1.

  4. Schulte (2015) [13] study 2.

 N/A