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Proposed mechanisms of vitamin D signalling in chronic liver disease. Adequate vitamin D production in disease may reduce fibrosis development through effects of VDR in HSCs or other cells. Abbreviations: HSCs (hepatic stellate cells), KC (Kupffer cells), ECs (endothelial cells), RXR (retinoid X receptor), TGF-β (transforming growth factor-β), TGFB1 (gene encoding TGF-β1), Smad (mothers against decapentaplegic homologue (Drosophila).
