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Model notation
| Life-history parameters | |
| α | Number of offspring |
| ω1 | Survival of the first age class (offspring) |
| ω2 | Survival of the first reproductive class (parents) |
| ω3 | Survival of the non-reproductive class (grandparents) |
| Benefit parameters | |
| a21 | Efficacy of a grandparent’s help on the survival of the offspring |
| b | Effectiveness of backward help, the maximum efficacy of the parents’ help on the grandparent’s survival |
