Table 2.
Neuropsychological Functioning and Temperament at Age 3 to 4 Years as a Function of Maternal GDM and SES
| Child Outcomes | Groupa
|
Wald | P Value | Significant Pairwise Comparisonb | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
| Neuropsychological functioning, NEPSY | |||||||
| Attention/executive functioning | 100.5 (1.4) | 105.2 (3.3) | 99.7 (1.5) | 101.5 (3.2) | 2.6 | .46 | NA |
| Language | 103.6 (1.1) | 110.5 (3.3) | 99.2 (1.4) | 95.6 (2.9) | 18.4 | <.001 | 1, 2 > 3, 4 |
| Sensorimotor | 93.1 (1.5) | 93.6 (4.3) | 95.6 (1.5) | 91.5 (4.0) | 2.0 | .56 | NA |
| Visuospatial | 107.7 (1.3) | 104.2 (3.7) | 107.7 (1.4) | 98.0 (2.2) | 16.9 | .001 | 1, 2, 3 > 4 |
| Memory | 101.1 (3.8) | 96.6 (1.4) | 90.7 (1.6) | 89.4 (3.6) | 12.7 | .005 | 1, 2 > 3, 1 > 4 |
| Cognitive function, WPPSI-III | |||||||
| Verbal IQ | 113.6 (4.2) | 110.5 (1.5) | 100.2 (1.6) | 92.3 (2.7) | 32.5 | <.001 | 1, 2 > 3 > 4 |
| Performance IQ | 111.9 (3.8) | 109.8 (1.5) | 107.8 (1.5) | 100.6 (4.0) | 5.4 | .14 | NA |
| Full-scale IQ | 113.6 (3.5) | 109.2 (1.4) | 104.7 (1.4) | 97.0 (2.8) | 20.1 | <.001 | 1, 2 > 3 > 4 |
| General language composite | 112.9 (3.9) | 108.8 (1.4) | 102.1 (1.6) | 94.2 (2.7) | 32.4 | <.001 | 1, 2 > 3 > 4 |
| Temperament, TABC-R | |||||||
| Lack of inhibition | 43.7 (1.1) | 43.1 (3.4) | 43.9 (1.2) | 58.4 (2.1) | 34.8 | <.001 | 1, 2, 3 < 4 |
| Negative emotion | 49.5 (1.0) | 46.2 (3.6) | 50.2 (1.2) | 56.5 (3.8) | 4.1 | .25 | NA |
| Activity level | 53.2 (0.9) | 50.7 (2.6) | 54.6 (0.9) | 58.6 (2.0) | 8.3 | .04 | 1 < 4 |
| Lack of persistence | 50.1 (0.9) | 48.1 (2.8) | 50.6 (1.0) | 60.6 (2.3) | 19.7 | <.001 | 1, 2, 3 < 4 |
| Impulsivity | 50.5 (0.8) | 47.4 (2.8) | 51.3 (0.9) | 59.4 (2.5) | 14.1 | <.003 | 1, 2, 3 < 4 |
Abbreviations: ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; NA, not applicable; NEPSY, Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment; SES, socioeconomic status; TABC-R, Temperament Assessment Battery for Children–Revised; WPPSI-III, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Third Edition.
Data are given as means (SDs). Group 1, children exposed to neither mother’s GDM nor low SES (n=97); group 2, children exposed to mother’s GDM but not low SES (n=12); group 3, children exposed to low SES but not mother’s GDM (n=94); and group 4, children exposed to both mother’s GDM and low SES (n=9).
The α for P value for pair-wise comparisons was adjusted for multiple comparisons using sequential Bonferroni (Holm) method. Age of mother, mother’s alcohol use and smoking during pregnancy, age, sex, race/ethnicity, and birthweight of the child, and maternal ADHD symptoms, paternal ADHD symptoms, and risk-group status (at-risk vs typically developing) are included in the generalized estimating equations model as covariates.