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Mechanism of action conceptualization. (A) NPs dissolve in to constitutive toxic ions which diffuse into the media. (B) NP catalyze the production of toxic substances (e.g., ROS) on their surface. (C) NP vertices or edges interact with biomolecules such as proteins or DNA in a shape-specific, biomimetic manner. (D) Rough NPs come into contact with bacterial membranes causing mechanical damage.
