Table 1.

Cases of malaria-associated pulmonary complications in humans.

No. of cases	No. of deaths	Age(s)	Parasite species	Country	Respiratory signals	Pulmonary manifestations	Histology	References
1	0	59	P. vivax	South Korea	Dyspnea	Haziness in lung XR; PaO2 69,0 mmHg; FiO2 1,0	No	Lee et al., 2013
200	14 (ARDS)	21–40; >60	P. vivax (40%); P. falciparum (40%); Mixed (20%)	India	Dyspnea; cough	Small airway obstruction; low O2 saturation; XR abnormality; ARDS	No	Nayak et al., 2011
1	0	37	P. falciparum	Nigeria	Dyspnea; tachypnea	PaO2 49 mm Hg; bilateral bibasilar Infiltrate on XR;	No	Asiedu and Sherman, 2000
1	1	60	Unknown	India	Unknown (patient was found dead)	Edematous lungs	PRBC with hemozoin; alveolar exudate; focal pleural fibrosis; lymphocytic infiltrate; septal vessels with PRBC	Menezes et al., 2010
2	1	40 and 50	P. falciparum	India	Dyspnea	Diffuse alveolar hemorrhages; bilateral diffuse infiltrates on XR; PaO2 60 and 78 mmHg; FiO2 1 and 0,6	No	Saigal et al., 2014
1	1	20	P. vivax	India	Dyspnea	ARDS	Focal pulmonary edema; alveolar capillary congestion; diffuse alveolar damage; hyaline membrane formation; inflammatory infiltrate	Valecha et al., 2009
100	0	18–44	P. vivax (50%); P. falciparum (50%)	Indonesia	Cough	RF: > 24 breaths/min; reduced gas transfer	No	Anstey et al., 2007
10	10	17–34	P. falciparum	Mozambique	Dyspnea	Not described	PRBC in lung microvasculature; lung edema; hemorrhage and congestion	Castillo et al., 2013
1	0	28	P. vivax	India	Dyspnea	RF: 44 breaths/min.; PaO2/FiO2:100; bilateral alveolar opacities on XR; respiratory alkalosis	No	Agarwal et al., 2007
1	0	38	P. falciparum	Brazil	Dyspnea	Bilateral pulmonary infiltrates; interlobular septal thickening; bilateral pleural effusion	No	Marchiori et al., 2013
19	19	1–88	P. vivax	Brazil	Not described	Lung edema; ARDS	Alveolar edema; interstitial infiltrate; congestion; hyaline membrane	Lacerda et al., 2012b
204	5 (ARDS)	>11	P. falciparum	India	Cough; dyspnea; tachypnea;	RF: greater than 30 breaths /min; XR abnormal; pulmonary infiltrates	No	Maria et al., 2015
120	14	15–71	P. falciparum	Thailand	Not described	Lung edema; ARDS (PaO2 < 60 mm Hg; FiO2 > 60 percent)	No	Aursudkij et al., 1998
26	0	18–72	P. falciparum; P. vivax; P. ovale	Australia	Cough	Airflow obstruction; worsening of gas transfer; increased pulmonary phagocytic activity	No	Anstey et al., 2002
100	100	0, 5–13	P. falciparum	Malawi	Not described	RF: 42–55 breaths/min;	Pulmonary edema; alveolar hemorrhage; alveolar fibrin; microthrombi; PRBC in alveolar capillaries; hemozoin deposits	Milner et al., 2013
800	95	0, 5–15	P. falciparum	Burkina Faso	Not described	Respiratory distress; pulmonary edema	No	Modiano et al., 1998
922	11	≥18	P. vivax, P. falciparum	India	Not described	Respiratory distress; pulmonary edema; rising of respiratory rate	No	Saravu et al., 2014
48	24	13–82	P. vivax, P. falciparum	India	Dyspnea	PaO2/FiO2 < 200 mm Hg (in 25 patients;	Edematous lungs, congestion of alveolar capillaries with mononuclear cells (one patient)	Londhe et al., 2014
103	103	Children	P. falciparum	Malawi	Not described	Not described	PRBCs in vasculature; intravascular accumulation of monocytes/macrophages; pulmonary edema; capillary microthrombi	Milner et al., 2014
3	0	15–42	P. vivax	India	Dyspnea	RF: 32–48 breaths/min; PaO2/FiO2 < 200 mm Hg; hemoptysis	No	Sarkar et al., 2010
100	1	18–50	P. vivax	India	Dyspnea; tachypnea; dry cough; runny nose; sore throat	ARDS	No	Muley et al., 2014
1	0	73	P. knowlesi	Myanmar/ Thailand	Respiratory distress; Tachypnea	Respiratory distress RF: 18–20 breaths/min; interstitial opacities; pleural effusion; congestion; bilateral basal infiltrations	No	Seilmaier et al., 2014
3	3	16–28	P. falciparum	Brazil	Dyspnea; respiratory failure	Lung congestion on XR; PaO2/FiO2 < 200 mm Hg; edema	No	Fernandes et al., 2010