Table 4.

Exposure levels associated with mortality and cancer mortality.

Study population, reference	Exposure/outcomes
Kakehashi (Japan) cohort, n = 3,178, 15-year observation; Nakagawa et al.48; Nishijo et al.9	Hazard ratio for cancer mortality was 2.5 among women with permanent tubular impairmenta. Hazard ratio for all-cause mortality was 2.09 among women with urinary cadmium > 3 μg/g creatinine.
Nagasaki (Japan) cohort I, n = 275,23-year observation; Arisawa et al.49	OR for cancer mortality was 2.58 among those with tubular impairmenta. OR for all-cause mortality was 1.41 among those with permanent tubular impairmenta.
Nagasaki cohort II, n = 329, 13-year observation; Arisawa et al.7	No effects of body burden of cadmium on mortality were observed.
Belgian cohort, n = 956, 20.3-year median observation; Nawrot et al.50	Mortality increased by 20% and 44% in low- and high-exposure areas, respectively, among those with a 2-fold increase in body burden. Mortality increased by 25% and 33% in low- and high-exposure areas, respectively, among those with a 2-fold increase in blood cadmium.
U.S. cohort, n = 13,958, Menke et al.8	Male hazard ratio was 1.7 for all-cause mortality and 4.3 for cancer mortality, comparing urinary cadmium < 0.21 versus > 0.48 μg/g creatinine.

OR, odds ratio.

^aIrreversible tubular impairment was defined as urinary β2-MG > 1,000 μg/g creatinine.