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| Smoking history |
| Occupational exposure to chemicals or dyes (benzenes or aromatic amines) |
| History of gross hematuria |
| Age > 40 yr |
| Previous urologic history |
| History of irritative voiding symptoms |
| History of urinary tract infection |
| Analgesic abuse |
| History of pelvic irradiation |
Adapted from reference 28.
