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. 2018 May 25;9:2066. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-04336-z

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Modeling the biomechanics of traction bronchiectasis. a Schematic shows the formation of numerous cystic airspaces in the fibrotic lung interstitium due to traction force-induced bronchial dilation. b The bronchial dilation was modeled through inducing the dilation of tissue openings in engineered fibrotic microtissues. FE simulated first principal stress distribution of a square microtissue supported by flexible micropillars (c), a square microtissue supported by rigid micropillars (d) and a long microtissue supported by rigid micropillars (e). Note high stress concentration around the micropillars in d and e induced dilation of the tissue opening. f Overview of the strategy for fibrosis induction in long microtissue and fibrosis evaluation based on the measurement of stress concentration and tissue opening size. g Merged immunofluorescence images of α-SMA and collagen type-I of untreated and TGF-β1-treated long microtissues. Apparent dilation of openings around micropillars and in the belly region can be observed in TGF-β1-treated condition. Scale bar is 500 µm. h Enlarged views of collagen type-I and α-SMA of highlighted region in g. α-SMA positive myofibroblasts aligned circumferentially around the dilated openings, matched well with the direction of simulated principal stress vectors (i). j Plot of the percentage of microtissue area occupied by the openings. The opening area of TGF-β1-treated sample is significantly larger than that of untreated sample at day 6. Data are reported as the mean ± SD. n ≥ 5; *P < 0.001 when compared to untreated condition by one-way ANOVA with Tukey test