Table 1.
Bioprinting techniques summary and examples of use.
| bioprinting technology | summary of technology | examples of tissue structures produced | benefits | drawbacks | average resolution |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ink-jet | thermal, electromagnetic or piezo-electric force propels droplets of bio-ink to defined area | vascular [10] skin [10] osteochondral [11,12] ovarian [13] liver [14] neural [15] |
high resolution | potential for high cellular stress during deposition; nozzle blockage common; expensive technology | 20+ µm; picolitres (pl) deposition; single/few cells possible per deposition |
| valve-based | pressure based deposition of bio-ink droplet through valve | embryonic [16] liver [17] |
gentler than ink-jet; high resolution available; high droplet deposition (1000 s−1) |
need for constant external pressure supply; nozzle blockage common | 40+ µm; nanolitres (nl) deposition; single/few cells per deposition |
| stereolithography | photocuring of photo-sensitive polymer by UV light produces solid structure from bath of acellular material or cellular bio-ink | vascular [18] liver [19] |
very high resolution; high-throughput and fast printing possible using digital mirror device technology | excess bio-ink needed to create curing bath; UV radiation, photo-initiator and resultant free radicals are toxic to cells; expensive technology | 150+ nm (higher with cell-laden ink); specific cell deposition not possible |
| laser-assisted | laser is fired to push cell from pool of bio-ink onto target surface | fibroblast [20] vascular [21] |
highest resolution of bioprinting possible; flexibility of printing material viscosity | excess bio-ink needed to create pool; potential damage to cells; expensive technology | single-cell resolution possible |
| extrusion | deposition of materials through motor-driven extruder | neural [22] liver [23] vascular [24,25] pancreatic [26] embryonic [27,28] osteochondral [29] |
flexibility with printing material viscosity; cell-friendly printing process; coaxial or multiple nozzles allow printing various bio-inks; affordable technology | low resolution; slow print times | 50 µm; cell aggregate or spheroid deposition only |