Table 1.
A tabular overview of the studies of regeneration abilities of cephalopod molluscs.
| Main Topic Year of publication | General description | Species | Fossilrecord | Nautilus | Cuttlefish | Squid | Octopus | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOUND HEALING | ||||||||
| 1983 | Skin healing | Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798) | ✓ | Polglase et al., 1983 | ||||
| 1988 | Wound healing in the arm | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Féral, 1988 | ||||
| 2006 | Skin healing | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Harms et al., 2006 | ||||
| 2016 | Wound healing in the arm | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Shaw et al., 2016 | ||||
| ARM ABNORMALITIES | ||||||||
| 1893 | Double hectocotylus | Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798) | ✓ | Appellof, 1893 | ||||
| 1898 | Sub-numerary arms (seven) in octopus | Enteroctopus megalocyathus (Gould, 1852) | ✓ | Lönnberg, 1898 | ||||
| 1900 | Extra arm in octopus; arm branching in octopus | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798); Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798) | ✓ | Parona, 1900 | ||||
| 1907 | Arm branching in octopus | Octopus cephea (Gray, 1849) taxon inquirendum | ✓ | Smith, 1907 | ||||
| 1913 | Arm branching | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798); Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798) | ✓ | Hanko, 1913 | ||||
| 1929 | Double hectocotylus | Octopus rugosus (Bosc, 1792) taxon inquirendum | ✓ | Robson, 1929 | ||||
| 1937 | Arm branching | Sepia esculenta (Hoyle, 1885) | ✓ | Okada, 1937 | ||||
| 1960 | Arm branching | Octopus briareus Robson, 1929 | ✓ | Kumpf, 1960 | ||||
| 1965 | Specimens of Japanese octopus with several branched arms | N/A | ✓ | Okada, 1965a | ||||
| 1965 | Arm branching ”rules" in the Japanese octopus | N/A | ✓ | Okada, 1965b | ||||
| 1973 | Double hectocotylus in octopus | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Octopus selene (Voss, 1971) | ✓ | Palacio, 1973 | ||||
| 1989 | Sub-numerary arms (seven) in octopus | Octopus sp. | Gleadall, 1989 | |||||
| 1991 | Six-armed specimen (Pteroctopus tetracirrhus) 10-armed specimen (Octopus briareus) | Pteroctopus tetracirrhus (Delle Chiaje, 1830); Octopus briareus Robson, 1929 | ✓ | Toll and Binger, 1991 | ||||
| 2007 | Double hectocotylus | Octopus minor (Sasaki, 1920) | Higashide et al., 2007 | |||||
| 2013 | Bilateral hectocotylization | Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910) | ✓ | Brewer and Seitz, 2013 | ||||
| 2014 | Arm branching | Octopus hubbsorum (Berry, 1953) | ✓ | Alejo-Plata and Méndez, 2014 | ||||
| ARM AUTOTOMY | ||||||||
| 1952 | Arm autotomy; regeneration of lost structures is hypothesized | Tremoctopus violaceus (delle Chiaje, 1830) | ✓ | Portmann, 1952 | ||||
| 1990 | Automutilation syndrome in Octopus dolfleini, O. bimaculoides, and O. maya | Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910); Octopus bimaculoides (Pickford & McConnaughey, 1949); Octopus maya (Voss & Solís, 1966) | ✓ | Reimschuessel and Stoskopf, 1990 | ||||
| 1992 | Arm autotomy | Ameloctopus litoralis Norman, 1992 | ✓ | Norman, 1992 | ||||
| 2001 | Arm autotomy and regeneration; arm autotomy | Abdopus capricornicus (Norman & Finn, 2001) Ameloctopus litoralis Norman, 1992; Octopus mutilans (Taki, 1942) | ✓ | Norman and Finn, 2001 | ||||
| 2012 | Arm autotomy and regeneration | Octopoteuthis deletron Young, 1972 | ✓ | Bush, 2012 | ||||
| ARM REGENERATION | ||||||||
| 1856 | Hectocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus; arm regeneration in Octopus sp. | N/A | ✓ | Steenstrup, 1856 | ||||
| 1857 | Hectocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus; arm regeneration in Octopus sp. | N/A | ✓ | Steenstrup, 1857 | ||||
| 1881 | Sucker, arm and tentacle regeneration in Loligo pealei and Ommastrephes illecebrosus | Doryteuthis (Amerigo) pealeii (Lesueur, 1821); Illex illecebrosus (LeSueur, 1821) | ✓ | Verrill, 1881 | ||||
| 1881 | Arm regeneration Shell aberration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Richiardi, 1881 | ||||
| 1882 | Arm regeneration in Architeuthis harveyi | Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 | ✓ | Verrill, 1882 | ||||
| 1901 | Arm regeneration in Octopus Defilippii | Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) | ✓ | Riggenbach, 1901 | ||||
| 1909 | Arm autotomy and regeneration in Octopus Defilippii | Macrotritopus defilippi (Vérany, 1851) | ✓ | Lo Bianco, 1909 | ||||
| 1916 | Arm regeneration in Polypus rugosus and Polypus tonganus | Octopus rugosus (Bosc, 1792) taxon inquirendum; Abdopus tonganus (Hoyle, 1885) | ✓ | Massy, 1916 | ||||
| 1920 | Arm regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798); Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | ✓ | Lange, 1920 | |||
| 1929 | Arm regeneration Octopus (Octopus) tonganus | Abdopus tonganus (Hoyle, 1885) | ✓ | Robson, 1929 | ||||
| 1964 | Arm regeneration, branchial gland and branchial heart healing | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Taki, 1964 | ||||
| 1977 | Arm regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758); Sepiola atlantica (d'Orbigny [in Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1839–1842); Loliginidae (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | ✓ | Féral, 1977 | |||
| 1978 | Arm and hectocotylus regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | O'Dor and Wells, 1978) | ||||
| 1978 | Arm regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Féral, 1978 | ||||
| 1979 | Arm regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Féral, 1979 | ||||
| 1981 | Tentacle and arm regeneration | Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | Murata et al., 1981 | ||||
| 1985 | Arm and tentacle regeneration in Sepia pharaonis and Loligo duvaucelii | Sepia pharaonis Ehrenberg, 1831; Uroteuthis (Photololigo) duvaucelii (d'Orbigny [in Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1835) | ✓ | ✓ | Nair and Rao, 1985 | |||
| 1992 | Arm regeneration in Octopus digueti | Paroctopus digueti (Perrier & Rochebrune, 1894) | ✓ | Voight, 1992 | ||||
| 2001 | Arm autotomy and regeneration in Octopus (Abdopus) capricornicus Arm autotomy in Ameloctopus litoralis, Octopus mutilans | Abdopus capricornicus (Norman & Finn, 2001); Ameloctopus litoralis Norman, 1992;Octopus mutilans (Taki, 1942) | ✓ | Norman and Finn, 2001 | ||||
| 2003 | Arm regeneration and arm-tip light organs regeneration | Vampyroteuthis infernalis (Chun, 1903) | ✓ | Robison et al., 2003 | ||||
| 2006 | Arm and tentacle regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Rohrbach and Schmidtberg, 2006 | ||||
| 2006 | Arm regeneration | Wunderpus photogenicus (Hochberg, Norman & Finn, 2006) | ✓ | Hochberg et al., 2006 | ||||
| 2011 | Arm regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Florini et al., 2011 | ||||
| 2011 | Arm regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Fossati et al., 2011 | ||||
| 2012 | Arm autotomy and regeneration | Octopoteuthis deletron Young, 1972 | ✓ | Bush, 2012 | ||||
| 2013 | Involvement of acetylcholinesterase in the arm regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Fossati et al., 2013 | ||||
| 2014 | Arm regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758); Sepia pharaonis (Ehrenberg, 1831) | ✓ | Tressler et al., 2014 | ||||
| 2015 | Acetylcholinesterase expression during adult arm regeneration and embryonic arm development | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Fossati et al., 2015 | ||||
| 2016 | Arm regeneration in | Octopoteuthis nielseni (Robson, 1948) | ✓ | Young and Vecchione, 2016 | ||||
| 2017 | Arm loss and regeneration | Abdopus sp. (Norman & Finn, 2001) | ✓ | Wada, 2017 | ||||
| 2018 | Arm regeneration (micro-PET imaging) | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Zullo et al., 2018 | ||||
| HECTOCOTYLUS REGENERATION | ||||||||
| 1882 | Tentacle regeneration in Ommastrephes illecebrosus; Hectocotylus regeneration in the family Philonexidae D'Orbigny. | Illex illecebrosus (LeSueur, 1821) | ✓ | Verrill, 1882 | ||||
| 1887 | Tentacle and hectocotylus regeneration in Octopus fusiformis, Octopus inconspicuus, Octopus cuvieri | Octopus fusiformis Brock, 1887 nomen dubium; Octopus inconspicuus Brock, 1887 taxon inquirendum; Callistoctopus lechenaultii (d'Orbigny [in Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1826) | ✓ | Brock, 1887 | ||||
| 1940 | Hectocotylus regeneration in castrated octopus | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Callan, 1940 | ||||
| 1944 | Hectocotylus regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Taki, 1944 | ||||
| 1978 | Arm and hectocotylus regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | O'Dor and Wells, 1978 | ||||
| 1995 | Hectocotylus regeneration | Sepietta oweniana (d'Orbigny [in Ferussac & d'Orbigny], 1839-1841); Sepiola ligulata (Naef, 1912) | ✓ | Bello, 1995 | ||||
| TENTACLES, ABNORMALITIES | ||||||||
| 2008 | Tentacle branching in Moroteuthis ingens | Onykia ingens (E. A. Smith, 1881) | ✓ | González and Guerra, 2008 | ||||
| TENTACLES, AUTOTOMY | ||||||||
| 2012 | Tentacle autotomy and regeneration | Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | Kurosaka et al., 2012 | ||||
| TENTACLES, REGENERATION | ||||||||
| 1881 | Sucker, arm and tentacle regeneration in Loligo pealeii and Ommastrephes illecebrosus | Doryteuthis (Amerigo) pealeii (Lesueur, 1821); Illex illecebrosus (LeSueur, 1821) | ✓ | Verrill, 1881 | ||||
| 1882 | Tentacle regeneration in Ommastrephes illecebrosus; Hectocotylus regeneration in the family Philonexidae D'Orbigny. | Illex illecebrosus (LeSueur, 1821) | ✓ | ✓ | Verrill, 1882 | |||
| 1887 | Tentacle and hectocotylus regeneration in Octopus fusiformis, Octopus inconspicuus, Octopus cuvieri | Octopus fusiformis Brock, 1887 nomen dubium; Octopus inconspicuus Brock, 1887 taxon inquirendum; Callistoctopus lechenaultii (d'Orbigny [in Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1826) | ✓ | Brock, 1887 | ||||
| 1937 | Tentacle regeneration | Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Férussac [in Lesson], 1831) | ✓ | Adam, 1937 | ||||
| 1966 | Tentacular stalk regeneration | Liocranchia gardineri (Robson, 1921) taxon inquirendum | ✓ | Clarke, 1966 | ||||
| 1968 | Tentacle regeneration | Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 | ✓ | Aldrich and Aldrich, 1968 | ||||
| 1981 | Tentacle and arm regeneration | Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | Murata et al., 1981 | ||||
| 1985 | Arm and tentacle regeneration in Sepia pharaonis and Loligo duvaucelii | Sepia pharaonis (Ehrenberg, 1831); Uroteuthis (Photololigo) duvaucelii (d'Orbigny [in Férussac & d'Orbigny], 1835) | ✓ | ✓ | Nair and Rao, 1985 | |||
| 1996 | Tentacle regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Hielscher et al., 1996 | ||||
| 2006 | Arm and tentacle regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Rohrbach and Schmidtberg, 2006 | ||||
| 2012 | Tentacle autotomy and regeneration | Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | Kurosaka et al., 2012 | ||||
| NERVE REGENERATION | ||||||||
| 1932 | Pallial and stellar nerve degeneration and regeneration in E. moschata, E. cirrosa, O. vulgaris, O. macropus, S. officinalis, L. vulgaris, Loligo pealeii | Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798); Eledone cirrhosa (Lamarck, 1798); Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Octopus macropus (Risso, 1826); Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758); Loligo vulgaris (Lamarck, 1798); Doryteuthis (Amerigo) pealeii (Lesueur, 1821) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Sereni and Young, 1932 | ||
| 1932 | Pallial and stellar nerve degeneration and regeneration | Eledone moschata (Lamarck, 1798); Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Octopus macropus (Risso, 1826); Loligo vulgaris (Lamarck, 1798); Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Young, 1932 | ||
| 1972 | Pallial nerve and stellar nerve lesion, regeneration and degeneration. Effect of lesion on the stellate ganglion | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797); Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | ✓ | Young, 1972 | |||
| 1974 | Recovery of function after pallial nerve cut or crush | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Sanders and Young, 1974 | ||||
| 2017 | Pallial nerve degeneration and regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Imperadore et al., 2017 | ||||
| 2018 | Pallial nerve regeneration (imaging through multiphoton microscopy) | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Imperadore et al., 2018 | ||||
| SHELL, REPAIR AND REGENERATION | ||||||||
| 1877 | Shell repair in fossil records (Nautiloids) ê | N/A | ✓ | Barrande, 1877 | ||||
| 1964 | Shell repair in fossil records (Nautiloids) | N/A | ✓ | Gordon, 1964 | ||||
| 1967 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Guex, 1967 | ||||
| 1972 | Shell repair | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | ✓ | Haven, 1972 | |||
| 1973 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Hölder, 1973 | ||||
| 1973 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Saunders, 1973 | ||||
| 1974 | Shell repair | Nautilus macromphalus (G.B. Sowerby II, 1849) | ✓ | Meenakshi et al., 1974 | ||||
| 1975 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Lehmann, 1975 | ||||
| 1976 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Keupp, 1976 | ||||
| 1977 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Hölder, 1977 | ||||
| 1977 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Keupp, 1977 | ||||
| 1978 | Shell repair | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | ✓ | Tucker and Mapes, 1978 | |||
| 1979 | Shell repair in fossil records (Bactritoids) | N/A | ✓ | Mapes, 1979 | ||||
| 1985 | Shell, cirri, hood, buccal mass and appendages regeneration | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Arnold, 1985 | ||||
| 1986 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Landman and Waage, 1986 | ||||
| 1988 | Shell repair | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Tanabe et al., 1988 | ||||
| 1989 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Bond and Saunders, 1989 | ||||
| 1991 | Shell repair | Nautilus sp. (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Saunders et al., 1991 | ||||
| 1991 | Cuttlebone regeneration in Sepia officinalis | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | von Boletzky and Overath, 1991 | ||||
| 1993 | Shell repair | Argonauta sp. (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Trego, 1993 | ||||
| 1993 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Kakabadzé and Sharikadzé, 1993 | ||||
| 1997 | Shell repair in Nautilus scrobiculatus and in fossil records (Ammonoids) | Allonautilus scrobiculatus (Lightfoot, 1786) | ✓ | ✓ | Landman and Lane, 1997 | |||
| 1998 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Keupp, 1998 | ||||
| 2002 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Morard, 2002 | ||||
| 2002 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Kröger, 2002b | ||||
| 2002 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Kröger, 2002a | ||||
| 2003 | Shell repair in Nautilus sp. and in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | ✓ | Mapes and Chaffin, 2003 | |||
| 2003 | Cuttlebone repair in Sepia orbignyana | Sepia orbignyana Férussac [in d'Orbigny], 1826 | ✓ | Bello and Paparella, 2003 | ||||
| 2004 | Shell repair in fossil records (Nautiloids) | N/A | ✓ | Kröger and Keupp, 2004 | ||||
| 2004 | Shell repair in fossil records (Nautiloids) | N/A | ✓ | Kröger, 2004 | ||||
| 2005 | Shell repair in fossil records (Belemnites) | N/A | ✓ | Mietchen et al., 2005 | ||||
| 2006 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Keupp, 2006 | ||||
| 2007 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids, Nautiloids, Bactritoids) | N/A | ✓ | Klug, 2007 | ||||
| 2010 | Shell repair | Nautilus sp. (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Saunders et al., 2010 | ||||
| 2010 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Zato, 2010 | ||||
| 2011 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Slotta et al., 2011 | ||||
| 2011 | Shell repair in fossil records (Endocerids) | N/A | ✓ | Kröger, 2011 | ||||
| 2012 | Shell repair | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Tsujino and Shigeta, 2012 | ||||
| 2013 | Shell repair | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Yomogida and Wani, 2013 | ||||
| 2013 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Odunze and Mapes, 2013 | ||||
| 2015 | Shell repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Hoffmann and Keupp, 2015 | ||||
| OTHER | ||||||||
| 1881 | Sucker, arm and tentacle regeneration in Loligo pealeii and Ommastrephes illecebrosus | Doryteuthis (Amerigo) pealeii (Lesueur, 1821); Illex illecebrosus (LeSueur, 1821) | ✓ | Verrill, 1881 | ||||
| 1933 | Sucker regeneration | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | May, 1933 | ||||
| 1964 | Branchial gland and branchial heart healing | Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Taki, 1964 | ||||
| 1981 | Cornea regeneration in Octopus dofleini and O. vulgaris | Enteroctopus dofleini (Wülker, 1910); Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) | ✓ | Dingerkus and Santoro, 1981 | ||||
| 1985 | Shell, cirri, hood, buccal mass and appendages regeneration | Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Arnold, 1985 | ||||
| 2000 | Muscle repair in fossil records (Ammonoids) | N/A | ✓ | Keupp, 2000 | ||||
| 2003 | Arm regeneration and arm-tip light organs regeneration | Vampyroteuthis infernalis (Chun, 1903) | ✓ | Robison et al., 2003 | ||||
| 2008 | Jaw repair | Nautilus belauensis (Saunders, 1981); Nautilus macromphalus (G.B. Sowerby II, 1849); Nautilus pompilius (Linnaeus, 1758); Allonautilus scrobiculatus (Lightfoot, 1786) | ✓ | Kruta and Landman, 2008 | ||||
| 2011 | Chromatophore re-growth during fin regeneration | Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) | ✓ | Yacob et al., 2011 | ||||
| 2017 | Muscle regenerative potential in cephalopods | N/A | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Zullo et al., 2017 | ||
A total of 119 studies are included in this list organized by topic (e.g., wound healing; arm abnormalities, autotomy and regeneration; hectocotylus regeneration; tentacle autotomy and regeneration; nerve regeneration; shell repair and regeneration) and chronological order. For each study, we provide a general description based on the topic and indicate the taxon (including fossil record) and the species that has been subject of the work. The taxonomy has been revised following WoRMS (World Register of Marine Species, http://www.marinespecies.org/index.php) whenever the case, and reported as in the original study (General Description) when the species differ from the currently accepted taxonomic nomenclature. In a few cases some species are indicated as nomen dubium (a species name is of uncertain taxonomic significance, no type and original description very vague) and taxon inquirendum (when the taxonomic validity is uncertain or disputed by different experts). In the table we do not include the work by Young on the anatomy of the nervous system of Octopus vulgaris, that provide description of regeneration occurring in the “central nervous system” in various regions of cephalopods' brain. N/A, not available.