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. 2018 May 20;8(5):349. doi: 10.3390/nano8050349

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© 2018 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Interactions of graphene with macrophages. (a) Optical micrographs of macrophages treated with 25 µg/mL GO and PVP-GO for 48 h. Macrophages showed to be inclined to GO internalization (red arrows), while the functionalization with PVP prevents the phenomenon. (b) Signaling pathway of macrophage activation stimulated by graphene. Graphene may stimulate Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs), thus activating kinase cascade Myeloid Differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88)-dependent mechanism. IKK activation initiates the phosphorylation and degradation of IκB and consequently, the release of NF-κB subunits and their translocation into the nucleus. NF-κB binds to the promoter regions of its effector genes and initiates the transcription of multiple pro-inflammatory genes and the secretion of Interleukin 1α (IL-1α), IL-6, IL-10, Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α). Reproduced with permissions from [92,99].