Table 1.

Evidence of early programming of psychiatric and cardiometabolic diseases by neuro- and cardio-active substances.

Neuro-and Cardio-Active Substance	Early Programming of Psychiatric Disorders	Early Programming of Cardiometabolic Diseases
Cortisol	Changes in concentration during early stages determine the risk to suffer stress or have an adequate level of resilience [37].	High fasting levels during early development determine low birthweight which is associated with CMD [27,38].
Oxytocin	Elevated estrogen levels during pregnancy determine oxytocin receptors in the limbic system which determine the risk of psychiatric disorders [39].	Oxytocin levels during early life determine the risk of CMD in the adult [40].
Vasopressin	Expression of vasopressin receptors is determined by stress in the early postnatal stages and induces a behavior similar to depression [41].	Maternal water restriction induces risk of hypertension in the offspring when they reach adulthood, probably by alterations in vasopressin receptors [42].
Natriuretic peptides		There are epigenetic modifications in the pattern of secretion of these peptides and of other proteins that determine the force of ventricular contraction throughout life [43].
Renin-angiotensin system		The improper activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) from early stages is implied in the development of hypertension linked to the fetal stage [44].
Neuregulins	Alterations of neuregulin 1 during neural development modify behavioral traits. This contributes to a hyperdopaminergic trait and to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia [45].	Neuregulin 1 is essential for normal heart development, promoting survival of embryonary ventricular myocytes [46].
Purinergic mediators	Adenine nucleotide signaling has an important role in progenitor cell proliferation, cell migration, interaction and differentiation of neurons and glia, and in the formation of synaptic nets during embryogenesis and may alter adult nervous system functioning in the adult [47].	There is abnormal cardiac function in adult offspring of pregnant mice treated with adenosine antagonists [48,49].
Inflammatory mediators	Premature infections cause alterations in the balance of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and may alter in a premature way the development of the fetal brain, having consequences in the adult [50,51].	Cardiometabolic programming might be mediated by inflammatory mediators present during early development [50,51].