Table 2.
Environmental and lifestyle risk factors in neuroinflammmatory diseases
| Risk factor | Potential mechanisms | Disease | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Viral infections | ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, ↑macrophages, ↑NK cells | ↑ALS, ↑MS, ↑stroke, ↑autisma, ↑schizophreniaa, ↑bipolar disordera | 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99 |
| Bacterial infections | ↑neutrophils, ↑complement, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines | ↑MS, ↑stroke, ↑schizophreniaa, ↑bipolar disordera | 94, 95, 98, 99 |
| Fungal infections | ↑neutrophils, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, ↑macrophages | ↑MS, ↑ALS, ↑AD, ↑stroke | 87, 92, 94, 95 |
| Pollution | ↑ROS, microglial activation, BBB changes, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines, infiltrating monocytes, astrogliosis | ↑stroke, ↑AD, ↑PD, ↑MS, ↑ALS, ↑autisma | 90, 91, 96 |
| Metals exposure | Neurotoxicity and metal aggregates, ↑ROS | ↑ALS, ↑PD, ↑autisma | 91, 92, 96 |
| Pesticides | Neurotoxicity, ↑ROS, BBB changes, UPS inhibition, defective autophagy, ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction | ↑ALS, ↑PD, ↑AD | 91, 92 |
| Moderate alcohol consumption | ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines, ↑ROS, ↑chemokines, astrogliosis | ↓ALS, ↓AD, ↓PD, ↓MS, ↑stroke, ↑depression, ↑bipolar disorder | 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 99 |
| Smoking | ↑ROS, neurotoxicity, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines | ↑ALS, ↓PD, ↑AD, ↑MS, ↑stroke, ↑autisma (debated), ↑depression, ↑bipolar disordera | 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97 |
| Regular exercise | ↑monocytes, ↑neutrophils, ↑NK cells | ↑ALS, ↓AD, ↓PD, ↓depression | 91, 92, 97 |
| Obesity | ↑macrophages, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines, ER stress | ↑ALS, ↑PD, ↑AD, ↑MS, ↑stroke, ↑depression | 91, 92, 93, 95, 97 |
| Head injury | ↑neutrophils, ↑complement, ↑pro‐inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, T‐cell migration | ↑ALS, ↑PD, ↑AD, ↑MS, ↑bipolar disorder | 91, 92, 93, 99 |
a
Prenatal exposure.