Table 3.

Biomarkers and imaging of neuroinflammatory diseases

Target type	Target	Marker	Methods	References
Resident CNS cells	Translocator protein	Innate immune activation	PET, SPECT	109
	Monoamine oxidase‐b	Reactive astrocytes	PET	109
	Cyclooxygenase 1	Activated microglia and astrocytes	PET	109
	Myeloperoxidase	Inflammatory mediator found in leucocytes	MRI, PET	114
	Adenosine receptors	Cell injury	PET	115
	a4b2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors	Activated microglia and astrocytes	PET	109
	Myo‐inositol	Astrocyte hypertrophy	MRS	109
	N‐acetyl‐aspartate	Neuronal integrity	MRS	109
	Iron accumulation	Free radical formation, mitochondrial or neuronal dysfunction	MRI	116
	Myelin	Demyelination and loss of myelin integrity in white matter disorders	PET	109
BBB integrity	Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1	Activation BBB	Molecular imaging	109
	P‐glycoprotein	Alterations of expression in relation to BBB activity	PET, optical imaging	109
Immune markers	Cytokines	Pro‐ or anti‐inflammatory signals	CSF	110
	Chemokines	Pro‐ or anti‐inflammatory signals	CSF	110
	Superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide (SPIO)	SPIO‐labelled phagocytic cells	MRI	117
Antibodies	Oligoclonal bands	IgG of unknown specificity	CSF	111
	Anti‐aquaporin 4 antibodies	Antibodies to aquaporin 4 (water channel protein)	Blood	111
	Anti‐NF antibodies	Neuronal damage	Blood	111
Free proteins	Neurofilaments	Neuronal damage	CSF	111
	MicroRNAs	Circulating microRNAs involved in inflammation	Blood	111
	β‐amyloid	Proteins involved in disease pathology	Blood	118
	Tau	Proteins involved in disease pathology	Blood	112
	Annexin V	Apoptosis	PET, SPECT, blood	109
	Exosomes	A potential mechanism by which pathology is spread and/or toxic proteins are transported	CSF/blood	112