Table 2.

Studies investigating PA in adults across SES. Positive relationships.

Study	Aim and Study Design	Sample	Measures of SES 1	Outcome/Conclusion
Bernstein et al., 2001	Describe the distribution of PA. Questionnaires/measures of weight and height	n = 3410 M: 1707 F: 1703 Age: 35–74 SWITZER-LAND	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Sedentarism (related to total energy expended) is more prevalent in (…) W and lower SES persons [22]
Bertrais et al., 2004	Evaluate the characteristics of subjects meeting public health PA recommendations. Questionnaire	n = 7404 M: 3404 F: 4000 Age: 45–68 FRANCE	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: −	In W, but not M, education level was positively related to meeting Public health recommendations (PHR) (related to METs). Resident location was not related to the probability of meeting the PHR in M, whereas W who did not live in an urban pole were more likely to meet the PHR compared with women who did [23]
Kamphuis et al., 2008	Examine the contribution of neighborhood, household, and individual factors to SES inequalities in sports participation in a multilevel design. Postal survey	n = 3839 M: 1836 F: 2003 Age: 25–75 HOLLAND	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: deprivation	The lowest educated and lowest income group were most likely to report no sports participation. Significant clustering of no sports participation within neighborhoods. Two out of three indicators of material deprivation (crowding or having financial problems) and all three indicators of social deprivation increased the likelihood of doing no sports. In addition, these factors showed higher prevalence among lower SES groups [24]
Borodulin et al., 2008	Investigate the associations of age and education with types of LTPA. Self-reported questionnaire	n = 4437 M: 1940 F: 2497 Age: 25–64 FINLAND	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Education was directly associated with conditioning and overall LTPA in M and W, but no association was found with daily PA. For both M and W, low education group reported significantly less conditioning activity and overall LTPA than the middle and high education groups [25]
Kwaśniewska et al., 2010	Analyze the epidemiology of TPA and investigate the relationship between TPA and SES and lifestyle. Questionnaire	n = 7280 M: 3747 F: 3533 Age: 20–74 POLAND	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Prevalence of walking/cycling less than 15 min/day was the highest among those with secondary education (both M and W), with the lowest income in M and with the monthly income 130–260 Euros/month in W. Active transportation lasting 15+ min/day was most prevalent in M and W with monthly income above 260 Euros/month. Among both M and W commuting 30+ min/day there was a domination of persons with university education [26]
Stringhini et al., 2011	Examine whether health behaviors are equally important mediators of the SES-health associations in different cultural settings. Questionnaire	n = 30,933 M: 21,906 F: 9027 Age: 35–55 UK/FRANCE	Education: + Income: + Occupation: + Neighborhood: − Other: −	The difference in prevalence between highest and lowest occupational group was 15% for being PIA. Participation in the lowest occupational group compared to those in the highest were more likely to be (…) PIA [27] (Only Whitehall II, phase I (the British study) is included due to the PA measure criteria)
Łobaszewski et al., 2011	Evaluate the prevalence, socio-demographical patterns and behavioral characteristics of LTPA. Questionnaire	n = 15,000 M: unknown F: unknown Age: 45–64 POLAND	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	% of persons engaging in walking in their leisure time was highest in higher income groups. In the lower income SES groups, this proportion was significantly lower. 28.7 of respondents with higher education participated in moderate exercises, 18.2% with secondary education and 11.2% of those with primary or vocational education. 27.8% with the highest income performed moderate PA, but significantly lower for those with a lower income. Strong correlation between education and vigorous PA; those with higher education participated significantly more than those with lower education did. A similar correlation was observed for the income variable. Those of lower or medium SES engaged in vigorous exercises significantly less often than those with higher income [28]
Borodulin et al., 2012	Explore associations of education and income with BMI and study the mediating pathways through health behavior. Questionnaire	n = 3258 M: 1555 F: 1703 Age: 25–75 FINLAND	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Significantly positive relationships found between education and LTPA and between income and LTPA for M and W [29]
Ord et al., 2013	Examine the extent to which green space is a venue for PA and if this could account for SES health inequalities in green neighborhood. Survey	n = 3679 M: 1621 F: 2058 Age: 16–75+ SCOTLAND	Education: − Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	An independent, positive association between household income and meeting the recommended walking guidelines and participation in green PA [30]
Uijtdwilligen et al., 2014	Examine the longitudinal of person-related factors with PA behavior in young adults. Semi-structured interview	n = 499 M: 248 F: 251 Age: 21–36 HOLLAND	Education: − Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: employment	M and W having no paid work spent significantly more time in Moderate PA than those working full time. Full-time working M spent significantly more time in vigorous PA than those without paid work. W: No association [31]
Marques et al., 2014	Identify correlated factors that explain the recommended level of LTPA among Portuguese adults. Questionnaire	n= 2166 M: 972 F: 1194 Age: 31–60 PORTUGAL	Education: + Income: − Occupation: + Neighborhood: − Other: −	For M, those with middle SES (OR = 1.47, 95% CI: 1.04–2.06, p = 0.028), high SES (OR = 1.88, 95% CI: 1.35–2.62, p < 0.001), had a higher and significant tendency for meeting PA recommendation in leisure time. For W, middle SES (OR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.04–1.89, p = 0.026), middle level of education (OR = 1.41, 95% CI: 1.05–1.89, p = 0.023) were significantly associated with meeting PA recommendations during leisure time. For W, educational level was not significant when incorporated into the multivariate analysis [32]
Satariano et al., 2002	Examine the extent to which differences in LTPA are associated with differences in living arrangements. Questionnaire	n = 2073 M: 842 F: 1231 Age: 53–97 USA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: employed	Level of education was an important factor for both W and M. Those who engaged in higher levels of LTPA in both the full sample and among the married W were more likely to have had more than 12 years of education. Odds of participation were also elevated among W with more than 12 years of education. Engagement in highly vigorous PA compared to brisk PA also was elevated among W with more than 12 years of education (associations of LTPA and income/neighborhood are unknown) [19]
Huston et al., 2003	Examine associations between perceived neighborhood characteristics, access to places for PA, and LTPA. Phone survey	n = 1796 M: 680 F: 1116 Age: 18–65+ USA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: −	The % reporting any PA increased with increasing education level and with increasing income. The % engaging in recommended PA was higher in higher education groups and increased with increasing income. Although neighborhood characteristics were positively associated with engaging in any LTPA, these associations did not remain significant after adjusting for socio-demographic and other environmental factors. Neighborhood trails were also positively associated with engaging in PA, even after adjusting for socio-demographic and other environmental factors [33]
Ashe et al., 2008	Determine the proportion of elders who achieved a recommended amount of PA, and identify variables associated with meeting guidelines. Telephone interview	n = 24.233 M: 14,539 F: 9694 Age: 65–80 CANADA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Higher proportions of people in the No chronic disease group met the PA guidelines if there was a higher level of education or income. Respondents in the highest income and education categories in the Chronic disease group attained the same proportion as the overall mean for the No chronic disease [34]
Azagba & Sharaf, 2014	Examine LTPIA and its correlates among older Canadian adults. Questionnaire	n = 45,265 M: 22,814 F: 22,451 Age: 50–79 CANADA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Significant association with being PIA. Education: postsecondary (OR = 0.62, CI = 0.57–0.68), some postsecondary (OR = 0.68, CI = 0.58–0.80) and secondary (OR = 0.81, CI = 0.73–0.91) are less likely to be PIA relative to those with less than secondary education. Income: only the high and low middle-income categories are significantly different from low income. Those in the high-income category are less likely to be PIA than the low-income category (OR = 0.90, CI = 0.81–1.00) [35]
Dias-da-Costa et al., 2005	Measure the prevalence of PIA during leisure time, and identify variables associated. Questionnaire	n = 1968 M: 846 F: 1122 Age: 20–69 BRAZIL	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: household	Schooling and economic level were inversely related to low LTPA [36]
Azevedo et al., 2007	Explore the association between gender and LTPA, and study a variety of variations associated with PA. Questionnaire	n = 3100 M: 1344 F: 1756 Age: 20–70 BRAZIL	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: economic level	M with high education presented 75% lower risk of scoring zero in comparison to those with low education. Among W, this difference was 35%. Economic level showed a clear dose-response positive association with the PA score among W. Those in the least wealthy group (‘E’) presented 110% increased prevalence of score zero in comparison with those from level “A”. Among M, groups “C”, “D” and “E” presented comparable prevalence of subjects scoring zero, approximately 60% higher than M from the “A” level [37]
Reis et al., 2013	Examine the association between walkability and PA outcomes, and the effect of income on the relation between walkability and PA in adults. Questionnaire	n = 697 M: 334 F: 363 Age: 18–65 BRAZIL	Education: − Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: numbers of cars, children	No interactions between walkability and income were found. Leisure- time moderate-to-vigorous PA ranged 12.2–19.3% in low income areas, and 25.3–35.8% in high-income areas. Neighborhood income was independently associated with leisure- time moderate-to-vigorous PA (OR = 1.70, 95% CI = 1.06, 2.74, p = 0.029) [38]
Brown & Siahpush, 2006	Investigate predictors of being sedentary. National Health Survey	n = 16,243 M: 7600 F: 8643 Age: 18–60+ AUSTRALIA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: + Neighborhood: Index of relative SES	Low education level, blue-collar occupation, low income, and area social disadvantage were all significant predictors of sedentary behavior. Significant relationships between all SES variables and PA levels in both M and W. All indicators of low SES are powerful individual contributors to being sedentary [39]
Cerin et al., 2008	Identify individual, social, and environmental contributors to individual- and area-level differences in LTPA across SES. Questionnaire	n = 2194 M: 790 F: 1404 Age: 20–65 AUSTRALIA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: + Other: employment status, household	Respondents with a medium household income had 12.9%, and those with a high household income had 23.5% higher mean values of walking for recreation than respondents with a low household income. Compared to the SES reference categories, individuals with a secondary education, with medium household income, and living in a medium-income neighborhood would report 33.5% more recreational walking due to differences in the examined mediating variables. The mediated difference in mean walking between the lowest and highest SES categories was 53.9% [40]
Gearon et al., 2013	Ascertain the contribution of specific dietary elements and LTPA to variations in obesity with education. Questionnaire	n = 30,630 M: 12,141 F: 18,489 Age: mean 55 AUSTRALIA	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: −	Those with lower educational attainment appeared less likely to engage in high levels of LTPA for both M and W [41]
Mabry et al., 2012	Identify sociodemographic, anthropometric, and behavioral correlations of occupational, transport and leisure-time inactivity (OPIA, TPIA and LTPIA), and sitting time among adults in Oman. Questionnaire	n = 1335 M: 591 F: 744 Age: mean 36.3 OMAN	Education: + Income: − Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: work status	M: no significant association with OPIA or TPIA. Significantly higher odds of LTPIA for lower education (p = 0.03), and for not employed vs. employed (p < 0.05). F: no significant association with OPIA or TPIA. OR of LTPIA were 1.8 higher for not employed [42]
Adeniyi & Chedi, 2010	Explore the SES and demographic predictors of PA in pre-retired and retired in Nigeria. Questionnaire	n = 532 M: Unknown F: Unknown Age: 28–68 NIGERIA	Education: + Income: + Occupation: − Neighborhood: − Other: job duration	For both the retired and pre-retirement civil servants (…) current monthly income and job duration significantly predicted their engagement in mod PA. The lowest income group and the respondents with shortest job duration had significantly lower engagement than the higher SES groups [43]

¹ The symbols +/− indicates whether the particular SES measure is used in the study (+) or not (−).