Table 1.

Patient characteristics

Patients		Preoperative cognition		Epilepsy factors					IC Factors		Postoperative data
	Gender, age at nTMS	Neuropsychological profile: restricted vs. general cognitive impairment	Language dominance	Age at onset of epilepsy	Etiology (including resection, PAD and MRI)	Estimated number of seizures 6 months prior to nTMS	AEDs during nTMS	Overlap in epileptogenic and language zones	ICI	Time from nTMS to ICa	Cognition at 6 monthsb	Engel at 2 years
1	F 22.2 y	Restricted: slight disturbances in verbal functioning	IAP: positive bilateral	9.3 y	Mild FCD in the left anterior temporal lobe, MRI normal	96 DS	OXC, CLB, PG	No	Grid	+1.1 mo	0	4
2	M 9.4 y	Restricted: slight executive difficulties	fMRI: left	3.4 y	Suspected FCD in the left posterior insula in MRI, not resected	72 MS	OXC, VPA	No	SEEG	+0.4 mo	Not resected	Not resected
3	F 24.0 y	Restricted: slight executive difficulties	fMRI: left	8.1 y	Ganglioglioma G1 in the left lateral frontal lobe, MRI positive	80 DS	LTG, ZON, VPA, CZP	Yes	Grid	+4.8 mo	+	1d
4	F 15.3 y	General: slightly below average with executive functioning most impaired	fMRI: left	1 y	FCD2a in the frontolateral and ‐basal cortex and anterior insula, MRI normal	200 MS	OXC, ZON, LAC	No	Grid, SEEG	−24.4 mo; +1.1 mo	0	4b
5	F 14.2 y	Restricted: verbal functioning severely below average	fMRI: left	9 y	PAD normal in left anterior temporal resection sparing HC, MRI normal	360 DS	OXC, LEV	No	Grid, SEEG	+3.4 mo; +16.0 m	0	4b
6	M 19.0 y	General: severely below average with very effortful speech production	IAP: at least right (left injection only) fMRI: right or bilateral	0.5 y	Extensive atrophy of the left temporo‐occipital region caused by perinatal herpes encephalitis, MRI positive	2 GTCS, 20 DS	OXC, CLB	No lateral language finding	SEEG	−4.5 mo	+	1c
7	F 24.7 y	Restricted: slight disturbances in verbal functioning	IAP: left fMRI: left	14.3 y	FCD1b in the left anterior temporal lobe, MRI normal	180 DS	CBZ, PG, VPA	No lateral language finding	SEEG	+6.7 mo	0	1c
8	F 10.6 y	General: slightly below average	fMRI: bilateral	5.5 y	FCD1 at the left temporo‐parietal border near insular cortex, MRI positive	70 DS	LEV, OXC, AZM	No	Grid	+17.1 mo	0	1a
9	M 18.7 y	General: severely below average with verbal functioning most impaired	IAP: bilateral, predominant left (weak effect to the left)	1.7 y	PAD normal in left temporo‐parietal resection, MRI normal	6 GTCS, 12 DS	LAC, OXC, AZM	Yes	Grid	+2.2 mo	‐	4a
10	M 9.1 y	General: severely below average with verbal and executive functioning most impaired	IAP: bilateral, predominant left, fMRI: bilateral	0.5 y	FCD1c in the left temporal lobe, MRI positive	700 SS	VPA, RUF	Yes	Grid	+7.6 mo	+	4
11	F 16.3 y	Restricted: slight executive difficulties	fMRI: bilateral	5 y	Tuberous sclerosis, a left insular/fronto‐opercular tuber suspected epileptogenic, not resected	90 DS, 90 MS	OXC, VPA, VGB	No	SEEG	+6.7 mo	Not resected	Not resected
12	M 13.3 y	Restricted: verbal functioning slightly below average	fMRI: left	2.8 y	FCD2a in left frontolateral resection, MRI normal	16 MS	OXC, VPA	Yes	SEEG	+2.2 mo	‐	1a
13	M 12.4 y	Restricted: severe naming difficulties	fMRI: left	0.4 y	Insufficient sample for PAD in left temporal resection, MRI normal	12 DS, 2 MS, 12 A	CLB, VPA	Yes	Grid, SEEG	‐3.9 mo; ‐1.8 mo	0	3a
14	M 14.5 y	Restricted: slight verbal difficulties	fMRI: left	12.8 y	FCD1b in left frontal resections, MRI normal	24 DS	OXC,ZON, LEV	Yes	SEEG, SEEG	+0.7 mo	0	P
15	M 17.0 y	General: visual cognition mostly within normal range, other domains severely below average	fMRI: Right or bilateral	13.4 y	MRI normal, not resected	24 DS	OXC, LEV, VPA	No language finding	SEEG	+6.4 mo	Not resected	Not resected
16	M 13.3 y	General: extremely low functioning with verbal and executive functioning most impaired	Not done	5.9 y	FCD1b in the left parietal cortex, MRI normal	40 DS	VPA, OXC, CLB	Yes	SEEG, SEEG, Grid	−8.1 mo; −2.9 mo; +3.0 mo	‐	4
17	M 14.0 y	Restricted: slight executive and verbal difficulties	fMRI: left	4.4 y	MRI normal, not resected	10 MS	OCX, VPA, CLN	No language finding, epileptogenic zone unspecified	SEEG	+9.8 mo	Not resected	Not resected
18	M 16.3 y	General: severely below average with executive functioning most impaired	fMRI: left	2.8 y	FCD2 in left frontobasal resection, MRI normal	180 DS	VPA, LTG, LAC	Yes	SEEG	+6.9 mo	‐	P
19	M 32.2 y	Restricted: slight disturbances in non‐verbal functioning	fMRI: left	24.5 y	MRI normal, not resected	30 DS, 150 A	PG, LEV, OXC	Yes	SEEG	−2.9 mo	Not resected	Not resected
20	F 9.8 y	General: extremely low functioning with verbal and executive functioning most impaired	fMRI: left	1.8 y	MRI normal, not resected	900 MS	OXC, VPA, CLN	No language finding, epileptogenic zone unspecified	SEEG	−37.1 mo	Not resected	Not resected

A, aura; AED, antiepileptic drug; AZM, acetazolamide; CBZ, carbamazepine; CLB, clobazam; F, female; FCD, focal cortical dysplasia; fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging; G, gradus; GTCS, generalized tonic‐clonic seizure; HC, hippocampus; IAP, intracarotid amobarbital procedure; ICI intracranial investigations; LAC, lacosamide; LEV, levetirasetam; LTG, lamotrigine; mo, months; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; MS, motor seizure; nTMS, navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation; OXC, oxcarbazepine; P, pending; PAD, pathological diagnosis; PGB, pregabaline; M, male; DS, dyscognitive seizure; RUF, rufinamide; SEEG, stereo‐electroecephalogram; SS, series of epileptic spasms; nTMS, navigated transcranial stimulation; VGB, vigabatrin; VPA, valproate; y, years; ZON, zonisamide

^aPositive number = nTMS prior to IC; negative number = nTMS after IC

^b0: no postoperative change; −: notable postoperative decline; +: notable postoperative improvement