Table 1.

Marine sources and compounds with potential for anti-prostate cancer drug development.

Source Group	Compounds	Structure	Biological Activity on Prostate Cancer	References
Bacteria	Kahalalide F		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 0.07 μM in PC-3 cells; 0.28 μM in DU-145 cells) 50% of PSA decline for ≥4 weeks at 80 μg/kg/day in clinical trial	[14] [15]
Marine fungi	Demethoxyfumitremorgin C		Inhibition of proliferation (50% inhibition at 100 μM in PC-3 cells)	[16]
	Apochalasin V		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 30.4 μM in PC-3 cells)	[17]
Marine sponges	Rhizochalin		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 16.55 μM in PC-3 cells, IC50: 10.75 μM in DU-145 cells, IC50: 7.88 μM in LNCaP cells, IC50: 7.37 μM in 22Rv1 cells, IC50: 5.81 μM in VCaP cells)	[18]
	Rhizochalinin		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 1.14 μM in PC-3 cells, IC50: 1.05 μM in DU-145 cells, IC50: 1.69 μM in LNCaP cells, IC50: 0.87 μM in 22Rv1 cells, IC50: 0.42 μM in VCaP cells)	[19]
	latrunculin A		Inhibition of invasion (23% inhibition at 100 nM in PC-3 cells)	[20]
	Halichondramide		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 0.81 μM in PC-3 cells)	[21]
	Spongistatin 1		Inhibition of proliferation (50% inhibition at 500 pmol in LNCaP cells)	[22]
	Furospinosulin-1		Inhibition of proliferation (60% inhibition at 100 μM in DU-145 cells)	[23]
	Sodwanone and Yardenone		Inhibition of HIF-1α expression at 15 μM in PC-3 cells	[24]
	Niphatenone B		Inhibition of proliferation (90% inhibition at 250 μM in LNCaP cells)	[25]
	Agelasine B		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 0.04 μg/mL in DU-145 cells)	[26]
Cyanobacteria	Cryptophycin 52		Apoptosis (40% at 250 μg/mL in LNCaP cells)	[27]
	Lagunamide C		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 2.6 nM in PC-3 cells)	[28]
	Dolastatins		Cell cycle arrest (G2/M arrest in DU-145 cells)	[29]
	C-phycocyanin (C-PC)		Inhibition of proliferation (30% inhibition at 500 μg/mL in LNCaP cells)	[30]
	Iejimalide B		Cell cycle arrest (G0 / G1 arrest in LNCaP cells)	[31]
Rhodophyta	Bromophycolide D		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 9.0 μM in PC-3 cells)	[32]
Chlorophyta	14-keto-stypodiol diacetate (SDA)		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 2.7 μM in DU145 cells)	[33]
	Astaxanthin		Inhibition of proliferation (38% inhibition at 0.01 μg/mL in LNCaP cells)	[34]
Phaeophyta	Fucoidan		Apoptosis (15.2% at 10 μg/mL, 29.8% at 50 μg/mL, 39.3% at 100 μg/mL, and 45.1% at 200 μg/mL in PC3 cells)	[35,36]
Marine diatoms	Fucoxanthin		Inhibition of proliferation (50% inhibition at 2.5 μM in LNCaP cells)	[37,38]
	Fucoxanthin, Fucoxanthinol, and Amarouciaxanthin A		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 2.0–4.6 μM in PC-3 cells)	[39]
Corals	Pachycladins A–E		Inhibition of invasion (87% inhibition at 50 μM in PC-3 cells)	[40]
	Metabolite 1 from Sarcophyton ehrenbergi, synthetic enantiomer (R)-1		Cytotoxicity ((S)-1 (IC50: 161 mM in DU-145 cells); (R)-1 (IC50: 77.2 in DU145 cells)	[41]
Holothurians	Frondoside A		Cell cycle arrest (G2/M-phase at 0.5 µM in PC-3 cells)	[42]
	12-methyltetradecanoic acid		Cytotoxicity (IC50: 35.48 μg/mL in DU-145 cells, IC50: 20.45 μg/mL in PC-3 cells)	[43]