Table 1.
Characteristics of the included 56 intervention groups (51 RCTs)
| Reference | Design | Mean age (year) | Male (%) | Health status | No. of fish oil (n) | No. of control (n) | EPA+DHA (g/d) | EPA/DHA (ratio) | Duration (week) | Control | HR measurement | Dropout (%) | Blinding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mehta et al. 1988 [13] | Crossover | 63 | 100 | CAD | 8 | … | 5.5 | 1.4 | 4 | Not available | Single | 0 | d |
| Mills et al. 1989 [14] | Parallel | 28 | 100 | Healthy | 10 | 10 | 2.6 | 1.6 | 4 | Olive | Single | 0 | d |
| Vacek et al. 1989 [15] | Crossover | 54 | 63 | CAD | 6 | … | 9.0 | 1.5 | 6 | Palm and cottonseed | Single | 25 | d |
| Levinson et al. 1990 [16] | Parallel | 56 | 81 | Hypertension | 8 | 8 | 15.0 | 1.5 | 6 | Palm and corn | Multiple average | 6 | d |
| Mills et al. 1990 [17] | Parallel | 23 | 100 | Healthy | 10 | 10 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 4 | Safflower | Multiple average | 9 | d |
| Solomon et al. 1990 [18] | Parallel | 56 | 80 | CAD | 5 | 5 | 4.6 | 1.5 | 12 | Olive | Single | 0 | d |
| Wing et al. 1990 [19] | Crossover | 61 | 35 | Hypertension | 20 | … | 4.5 | 1.5 | 8 | Olive | Multiple average | 17 | d |
| Bairati et al. 1992 [20] | Parallel | 54 | 80 | CAD | 66 | 59 | 4.5 | 1.5 | 26 | Olive | Single | 39 | d |
| Deslypere et al. 1992 [21] | Parallel | 56 | 100 | Healthy | 14 | 14 | 2.9 | 4.9 | 52 | Oleic | Multiple average | 0 | d |
| Landmark et al. 1993 [22] | Crossover | 42 | 100 | Hypertension with hyperlipidemia | 18 | … | 4.6 | 0.6 | 4 | Olive | Single | 0 | d |
| Vandogen et al. 1993 [23] | Parallel | 46 | 100 | Healthy | 16 | 18 | 4.3 | 1.5 | 12 | Olive, palm, safflower | Multiple average | 13 | d |
| Leaf et al. 1994 [24] | Parallel | 63 | 79 | CAD | 201 | 205 | 6.9 | 1.4 | 12 | Corn | Single | 26 | d |
| McVeigh et al. 1994 [25] | Crossover | 53 | 80 | T2DM | 20 | … | 3.0 | 1.1 | 6 | Olive | Single | 0 | d |
| Toft et al. 1995 [26] | Parallel | 54 | 64 | Hypertension | 37 | 39 | 3.4 | 1.6 | 16 | Corn | Single | 10 | d |
| Christensen et al. 1996 [27] | Parallel | NA | NA | CAD | 26 | 23 | 4.3 | 1.5 | 12 | Olive | 24-h-continuous | 11 | d |
| Gray et al. 1996 [28] | Parallel | 56 | 100 | Hypertension | 9 | 10 | 3.5 | 1.6 | 8 | Corn | Multiple average | 10 | d |
| Christensen et al. 1998 [29] | Parallel | 52 | 59 | Renal failure | 11 | 6 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 12 | Olive | 24-h-continuous | 41 | d |
| Conquer and Holub, 1998 [30] | Parallel | 30 | 100 | Healthy | 9 | 10 | 3.0 | Purified DHA | 6 | Omega 6 | Single | 5 | d |
| Grimsgaard et al, 1998 [31] | Parallel | 44 | 100 | Healthy | 72 | 77 | 3.8 | Purified DHA | 7 | Corn | Multiple average | 4 | d |
| Grimsgaard et al. 1998 [31] | Parallel | 44 | 100 | Healthy | 75 | 77 | 3.6 | Purified EPA | 7 | Corn | Multiple average | 4 | d |
| Christensen et al. 1999 [32] | Parallel | 38 | 58 | Healthy | 20 | 20 | 5.9 | 1 | 12 | Olive | 24-h-continuous | 0 | d |
| Mori et al. 1999 [33] | Parallel | 49 | 100 | Overweight, hyperlipidemia | 17 | 20 | 3.7 | Purified DHA | 6 | Olive | 24-h-ambulatory | 5 | d |
| Mori et al. 1999 [33] | Parallel | 49 | 100 | Overweight, hyperlipidemia | 19 | 20 | 3.8 | Purified EPA | 6 | Olive | 24-h-ambulatory | 5 | d |
| Miyajima et al. 2001 [34] | Crossover | 45 | 100 | Hypertension | 17 | … | 2.7 | Purified DHA | 4 | Linoleic | Multiple average | 4 | d |
| Nestel et al. 2002 [35] | Parallel | 58 | 55 | Hyperlipidemia | 12 | 14 | 2.8 | Purified DHA | 7 | Olive | Single | 7 | d |
| Nestel et al. 2002 [35] | Parallel | 58 | 55 | Hyperlipidemia | 12 | 14 | 3.0 | Purified EPA | 7 | Olive | Single | 7 | d |
| Woodmann et al. 2002 [36] | Parallel | 61 | 76 | T2DM | 17 | 16 | 3.7 | Purified DHA | 6 | Olive | 24-h ambulatory | 15 | d |
| Woodmann et al. 2002 [36] | Parallel | 61 | 76 | T2DM | 17 | 16 | 3.8 | Purified EPA | 6 | Olive | 24-h ambulatory | 15 | d |
| Geelen et al. 2003 [37] | Parallel | 59 | 49 | Healthy | 39 | 35 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 12 | Oleic | Multiple average | 2 | d |
| Dyerberg et al. 2004 [38] | Parallel | 39 | 100 | Healthy | 24 | 25 | 3.2 | 1.5 | 8 | Palmitic | 24-h continuous | 10 | d |
| Monahan et al. 2004 [39] | Parallel | 25 | 56 | Healthy | 9 | 9 | 5.0 | 1.5 | 4.3 | Olive | Single | 0 | d |
| Stark and Holub, 2004 [40] | Crossover | 57 | 0 | Healthy | 32 | … | 2.8 | Purified DHA | 4 | Corn, soy | Multiple average | 16 | d |
| Geelen et al. 2005 [41] | Parallel | 64 | 60 | Frequent PVCs | 41 | 43 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 14 | Oleic | 24-h continuous | 9 | d |
| O’Keefe et al. 2005 [42] | Crossover | 68 | 100 | CAD | 18 | … | 0.8 | 0.4 | 16 | Corn, olive | 1-h continuous | 44 | d |
| Harris et al. 2006 [43] | Crossover | 49 | 72 | Cardiac transplant recepient | 18 | 4 | 3.4 | 1.1 | 20 (median) | NA | Single | 0 | d |
| Shah et al. 2007 [44] | Parallel | 31 | 65 | Healthy | 14 | 12 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 2 | Corn oil | Single | 4 | s |
| Theobald et al. 2007 [45] | Crossover | 48.65 | 50 | Healthy | 38 | … | 0.7 | Purified DHA | 12 | Olive oil | Multiple average | 0.05 | d |
| DeGiorgio et al. 2008 [46] | Crossover | 42.5 | NA | Epilepsy | 11 | … | 2.88 | 1.5 | 12 | Soybean oil | 1-h continuous | 0 | d |
| Ninio et al. 2008 [47] | Parallel | 50.25 | 37 | Overweight, mild hypertension, hyperlipidemia | 13 | 14 | 1.92 | 0.2 | 12 | Sunflower oil | Multiple average | 14 | d |
| Peoples et al. 2008 [48] | Parallel | 25.15 | 100 | Healthy | 9 | 7 | 3.2 | 0.3 | 8 | Olive oil | 1-h continuous | 88 | d |
| Walser et al. 2008 [49] | Parallel | 34.75 | 66 | Healthy | 12 | 9 | 5 | 1.5 | 6 | Safflower oil | 24-h continuous | 9 | d |
| Buckley et al. 2009 [50] | Parallel | 22.45 | 100 | Healthy | 12 | 13 | 1.92 | 0.2 | 5 | Sunflower oil | Multiple average | 14 | d |
| Nodari et al. 2009 [51] | Parallel | 62.95 | 91 | Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy | 22 | 22 | 0.85–0.88 | 0.6 | 24 | Olive oil | Single | 0.07 | d |
| Carney et al. 2010 [52] | Parallel | 57.35 | 86 | Depressed with CHD | 36 | 36 | 2 | 1.2 | 10 | Corn oil | Single | 33 | d |
| Sjoberg et al. 20109 [53] | Parallel | 53 | 51 | Overweight | 17 | 17 | 1.91 | 0.2 | 12 | Sunola oil | Multiple average | 11 | d |
| Yurko-Mauro et al. 2010 [54] | Parallel | 70 | 42 | Age-related cognitive decline | 242 | 243 | 0.9 | Purified DHA | 24 | Corn oil and soy oil | Single | 10 | d |
| Kim et al. 2011 [55] | Parallel | 58.5 | 41 | Hyperlipidemia | 30 | 31 | 3.3 | 1.2 | 6 | Simvastatin | 24-h continuous | 0.04 | o |
| Sagara et al. 2011 [56] | Parallel | 52.5 | 100 | Hypertension and hypercholesterolemia | 15 | 23 | 2 | Purified DHA | 5 | Olive oil | Multiple average | 32 | d |
| Noreen et al. 2012 [57] | Parallel | 35 | 100 | Healthy | 20 | 20 | 2.4 | 2 | 6 | Safflower oil | Multiple average | 0 | d |
| Carter et al. 2012 [58] | Parallel | 24 | 68 | Healthy | 34 | 33 | 2.7 | 1.4 | 8 | Olive oil | Single | 0 | d |
| Hansen et al. 2014 [59] | Parallel | 41 | 100 | Healthy | 42 | 43 | 3.6 | 0.5 | 23 | Chicken, pork or beef | Single | 12 | o |
| Logan and Spriet, 2015 [60] | Parallel | 66 | 0 | Healthy | ‘12 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 12 | Olive oil | Multiple average | 0 | s |
| Cottin et al. 2016 [61] | Parallel | 26.5 | 100 | Healthy | 15 | 15 | 3 | Purified DHA | 6 | Olive oil | 24-h continuous | 0.02 | s |
| Cottin et al. 2016 [61] | Parallel | 26.5 | 100 | Healthy | 14 | 15 | 3 | Purified EPA | 6 | Olive oil | 24-h continuous | 0.02 | s |
| Kristensen et al. 2016 [62] | Parallel | 62 | 41 | Psoriatic arthritis | 58 | 56 | 1.6 | 2 | 24 | Olive oil | Single | 21 | d |
| Matsumura et al. 2016 [63] | Parallel | 39.3 | 83 | Severely accident injured | 37 | 46 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 12 | Rapeseed oil, soybean oil, olive oil, and fish oila | Multiple average | 25 | d |
CAD coronary artery disease, CHD coronary heart disease, d double blind, NA not available, o open label, PVC premature ventricular contraction, s single blind, T2DM type 2 diabetes mellitus
aIntentional addition of 63 mg fish oil to the placebo served to prevent both participants and even researchers from identifying