Table 1.
Participant characteristics, nutrients and food groups intakes according to gestational weight gain (GWG) status in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study
| Characteristics | Alla n=960 |
Inadequate GWG n=114 |
Adequate GWG n=231 |
Excessive GWG n=615 |
Pb |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, year | 30.5 ± 5.1 | 30.4 ± 5.2 | 30.7 ± 5.1 | 30.5 ± 5.1 | 0.791 |
| Ethnicity | |||||
| Chinese | 531 (55.3) | 68 (59.6) | 143 (61.8) | 319 (52.1) | 0.006* |
| Malay | 252 (26.3) | 22 (19.3) | 44 (19.1) | 185 (30.2) | |
| Indian | 177 (18.4) | 24 (21.1) | 44 (19.1) | 108 (17.7) | |
| Education | |||||
| Secondary or lower | 274 (29.5) | 30 (27.0) | 73 (33.0) | 171 (28.7) | 0.124 |
| Post-secondary | 341 (36.8) | 34 (30.6) | 73 (33.0) | 234 (39.3) | |
| University | 313 (33.7) | 47 (42.3) | 75 (34.0) | 191 (32.0) | |
| Monthly household income | |||||
| <1999 | 129 (14.2) | 18 (16.5) | 31 (14.4) | 80 (13.7) | 0.163 |
| 2000-5999 | 518 (56.9) | 50 (45.9) | 127 (58.8) | 341 (58.3) | |
| >6000 | 263 (28.9) | 41 (37.6) | 58 (26.8) | 164 (28.0) | |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | |||||
| Underweight (<18.5) | 116 (12.1) | 41 (35.3) | 55 (47.4) | 20 (17.2) | <0.001* |
| Normal weight (18.5-24.9) | 606 (63.1) | 63 (10.4) | 159 (26.2) | 384 (63.4) | |
| Overweight (25-29.9) | 169 (17.6) | 9 (5.5) | 14 (8.5) | 142 (86.1) | |
| Obese (>30) | 69 (7.2) | 1 (1.4) | 3 (4.1) | 69 (94.5) | |
| Smoked during pregnancy | |||||
| Yes | 21 (2.2) | 5 (4.4) | 4 (1.7) | 12 (2.0) | 0.229 |
| No | 939 (97.8) | 109 (95.6) | 227 (98.3) | 602 (98.0) | |
| Alcohol intake during pregnancy | |||||
| Yes | 17 (1.8) | 4 (3.6) | 5 (2.2) | 8 (1.3) | 0.227 |
| No | 920 (98.2) | 108 (96.4) | 218 (97.8) | 594 (98.7) | |
| Physical activity, MET.mins/week | 1040 (329, 2673) | 1386 (681, 3119) | 1040 (297, 2142)# | 891 (297, 2349)# | 0.004* |
| Nulliparous | |||||
| Yes | 300 (31.3) | 33 (29.0) | 63 (27.3) | 204 (33.2) | 0.219 |
| No | 660 (68.7) | 81 (71.0) | 168 (72.7) | 411 (66.8) | |
| Gestational Diabetes | |||||
| Yes | 172 (19.1) | 38 (35.2) | 50 (23.3) | 84 (14.5) | <0.001* |
| No | 729 (80.9) | 70 (64.8) | 165 (76.7) | 494 (85.5) | |
| Energy, kcal/day | 1868 ± 598 | 1770 ± 469# | 1822 ± 573#, + | 1904 ± 625+ | 0.036* |
| Carbohydrate, %E | 51.8 ± 8.9 | 50.6 ± 8.6 | 51.1 ± 9.0 | 52.2 ± 8.8 | 0.093 |
| Protein, %E | 15.7 ± 3.9 | 15.8 ± 4.2 | 15.7 ± 3.8 | 15.6 ± 3.8 | 0.810 |
| Total Fat, %E | 32.6 ± 7.7 | 33.6 ± 6.9 | 33.2 ± 7.8 | 32.2 ± 7.7 | 0.091 |
| Animal-based protein foods, g/day | 146.0 (76.9, 232.5) | 135.6 (67.9, 225.6) | 145.5 (63.0, 218.7) | 147.1 (80.0, 236.1) | 0.569 |
| Fruit and vegetables, g/day | 150 (52.9, 291.5) | 111.8 (36.0, 226.2) | 165.9 (56.1, 287.8)# | 153.1 (61.1, 301.0)# | 0.012* |
| Grains, g/day | 360.0 (212.0, 478.7) | 357.2 (212.0, 484.0)# | 305.6 (157.8, 453.1)#, + | 375.0 (218.4, 484.5)+ | 0.044* |
| Plant-based protein foods | |||||
| No intake | 600 (62.5) | 83 (72.8) | 132 (57.1) | 385 (62.5) | 0.018* |
| Some intake | 360 (37.5) | 31 (27.2) | 99 (42.9) | 230 (37.4) | |
| Dairy products | |||||
| No intake | 282 (29.4) | 32 (28.1) | 70 (30.3) | 180 (29.3) | 0.908 |
| Some intake | 678 (70.6) | 82 (71.9) | 161 (69.7) | 435 (70.7) | |
| Fast food and savoury snacks | |||||
| No intake | 533 (55.5) | 70 (61.4) | 137 (59.3) | 326 (53.0) | 0.105 |
| Some intake | 427 (44.5) | 44 (38.6) | 94 (40.7) | 289 (47.0) | |
| Desserts and sweet snacks | |||||
| No intake | 495 (51.6) | 67 (58.8) | 123 (53.3) | 305 (49.6) | 0.166 |
| Some intake | 465 (48.4) | 47 (41.2) | 108 (46.7) | 310 (50.4) | |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | |||||
| No intake | 432 (45.0) | 53 (46.5) | 104 (45.0) | 275 (44.7) | 0.941 |
| Some intake | 528 (55.0) | 61 (53.5) | 127 (55.0) | 340 (55.3) |
Values are n (%), means ± SDs, or medians (inter-quartile ranges).
BMI, body mass index; %E, percentage of energy intake; GWG, gestational weight gain; MET.mins/week, minutes of metabolic equivalents of task per week
a
Sample sizes vary due to missing data.
b
P-values (<0.05 with asterisk) were obtained from chi-square test, one-factor ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni post hoc analysis (#, + groups with the same superscript symbol in a row indicate no significant difference).