Table 2.

Associations of maternal energy, macronutrients, and food groups intakes, with gestational weight gain z-scores in 960 women of the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study

	Model 1a		Model 2b
Energy and Macronutrients	β (95% CI)	P	β (95% CI)	P
Energy	0.23 (0.18, 0.28)	<0.001*	0.18 (0.13, 0.23)	<0.001*
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Fat	0.05 (0.004, 0.10)	0.033*	0.07 (0.03, 0.12)	0.003*
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Protein	-0.02 (-0.11, 0.06)	0.560	-0.01 (-0.09, 0.07)	0.745
Substitution of Protein for Fat	0.08 (-0.02, 0.19)	0.121	0.09 (-0.01, 0.19)	0.072
	Unadjusted		Model 2b
Food Groups, g (Median; IQR)	β (95% CI)	P	β (95% CI)	P
Animal-based protein foods
T1 (48; 0, 77)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (146; 124, 171)	0.13 (-0.03, 0.29)	0.115	0.04 (-0.11, 0.19)	0.636
T3 (266; 233, 321)	0.20 (0.04, 0.36)	0.017*	-0.07 (-0.23, 0.09)	0.396
	P-trend	0.015*	P-trend	0.394
Plant-based protein foods
T1 (No intake)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (15; 10, 22)	0.19 (-0.01, 0.39)	0.064	0.12 (-0.07, 0.31)	0.220
T3 (76; 50, 111)	0.04 (-0.12, 0.20)	0.637	-0.06 (-0.22, 0.09)	0.437
	P-trend	0.429	P-trend	0.575
Dairy products
T1 (No intake)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (200; 150, 250)	-0.06 (-0.22, 0.10)	0.479	-0.14 (-0.29, 0.01)	0.064
T3 (450; 350, 500)	-0.02 (-0.19, 0.15)	0.847	-0.18 (-0.34, -0.03)	0.022*
	P-trend	0.868	P-trend	0.024*
Fruit and vegetables
T1 (33; 0, 53)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (150; 110, 184)	0.07 (-0.09, 0.24)	0.382	0.04 (-0.11, 0.19)	0.626
T3 (340; 292, 482)	0.26 (0.10, 0.42)	0.002*	0.10 (-0.05, 0.26)	0.191
	P-trend	0.004*	P-trend	0.210
Grains
T1 (182; 99, 212)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (360; 312, 400)	-0.01 (-0.18, 0.15)	0.872	-0.08 (-0.23, 0.06)	0.257
T3 (547; 479, 642)	0.13 (-0.03, 0.29)	0.117	0.04 (-0.11, 0.20)	0.589
	P-trend	0.108	P-trend	0.598
Fast food and savoury snacks
T1 (No intake)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (72; 50, 100)	0.16 (-0.01, 0.34)	0.058	0.002 (-0.15, 0.16)	0.980
T3 (231; 174, 316)	0.16 (-0.01, 0.32)	0.055	-0.05 (-0.21, 0.10)	0.482
	P-trend	0.035*	P-trend	0.521
Desserts and sweet snacks
T1 (No intake)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (45; 27, 68)	0.04 (-0.11, 0.20)	0.591	-0.07 (-0.22, 0.07)	0.310
T3 (189; 143, 296)	0.25 (0.08, 0.43)	0.004*	-0.03 (-0.19, 0.13)	0.731
	P-trend	0.006*	P-trend	0.570
Sugar-sweetened beverages
T1 (No intake)	(reference)		(reference)
T2 (210; 150, 250)	0.21 (0.05, 0.38)	0.011*	0.10 (-0.05, 0.25)	0.201
T3 (500; 397, 700)	0.29 (0.13, 0.44)	<0.001*	0.10 (-0.04, 0.25)	0.166
	P-trend	<0.001*	P-trend	0.144
Carbohydrate-rich foodsc
T1 (363; 248, 450)	(reference)
T2 (621; 564, 707)	0.23 (0.07, 0.40)	0.006*	0.09 (-0.06, 0.24)	0.257
T3 (979; 852, 1207)	0.50 (0.33, 0.66)	<0.001*	0.20 (0.03, 0.37)	0.019*
	P-trend	<0.001*	P-trend	0.029*

CI, confidence interval; IQR, inter-quartile range; T1, tertile 1; T2, tertile 2; T3, tertile 3

Effect estimates for energy intake are per 500 kcal increment, for macronutrients are per 5% substitution for another macronutrient, and for food groups are per one tertile increase in median intake (P<0.05 with asterisk)

^aModel 1 adjusted for maternal energy intake only

^bModel 2 adjusted for maternal energy intake, age, ethnicity, education, income, smoking status, alcohol intake, physical activity, parity, gestational diabetes mellitus and pre-pregnancy BMI.

^cThe combined sum of intakes from grains, desserts and sweet snacks, and sugar-sweetened beverages.