Table 3.
Reference group: Adequate (n=231) | Inadequate (n=114) | Excessive (n=615) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1a | Model 2b | Model 1a | Model 2b | |||||
Energy and Macronutrients | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P |
Energy | 0.92 (0.76, 1.11) | 0.380 | 0.88 (0.72, 1.07) | 0.206 | 1.10 (0.97, 1.24) | 0.078 | 1.10 (0.97, 1.25) | 0.151 |
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Fat | 0.90 (0.76, 1.07) | 0.253 | 0.87 (0.72, 1.04) | 0.119 | 1.13 (1.01, 1.28) | 0.038* | 1.14 (1.00, 1.29) | 0.042* |
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Protein | 0.89 (0.66, 1.19) | 0.423 | 0.88 (0.65, 1.19) | 0.930 | 1.00 (0.82, 1.22) | 0.978 | 0.95 (0.77, 1.17) | 0.619 |
Substitution of Protein for Fat | 0.85 (0.60, 1.23) | 0.398 | 0.81 (0.56, 1.18) | 0.278 | 1.08 (0.84, 1.38) | 0.547 | 1.15 (0.89, 1.49) | 0.181 |
Unadjusted | Model 2b | Unadjusted | Model 2b | |||||
Food groups, g (Median; IQR) | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P |
Animal-based protein foods | ||||||||
T1 (48; 0, 77) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (146; 124, 171) | 0.72 (0.42, 1.25) | 0.250 | 0.83 (0.46, 1.47) | 0.517 | 0.85 (0.59, 1.23) | 0.398 | 0.87 (0.59, 1.27) | 0.471 |
T3 (266; 233, 321) | 0.90 (0.52, 1.57) | 0.722 | 1.11 (0.60, 2.05) | 0.740 | 1.06 (0.73, 1.55) | 0.751 | 1.03 (0.68, 1.55) | 0.891 |
P-trend | 0.706 | P-trend | 0.746 | P-trend | 0.750 | P-trend | 0.891 | |
Plant-based protein foods | ||||||||
T1 (No intake) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (15; 10, 22) | 0.69 (0.34, 1.40) | 0.302 | 0.65 (0.31, 1.35) | 0.251 | 1.02 (0.64, 1.61) | 0.942 | 0.97 (0.61, 1.55) | 0.901 |
T3 (76; 50, 111) | 0.41 (0.23, 0.75) | 0.003* | 0.40 (0.22, 0.75) | 0.004* | 0.70 (0.49, 0.99) | 0.046* | 0.66 (0.46, 0.94) | 0.024* |
P-trend | 0.003* | P-trend | 0.003* | P-trend | 0.059 | P-trend | 0.031* | |
Dairy products | ||||||||
T1 (No intake) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (200; 150, 250) | 1.00 (0.57, 1.74) | 0.996 | 0.96 (0.54, 1.70) | 0.894 | 0.95 (0.66, 1.38) | 0.807 | 0.93 (0.64, 1.35) | 0.709 |
T3 (450; 350, 500) | 1.27 (0.72, 2.24) | 0.415 | 1.24 (0.68, 2.25) | 0.490 | 1.18 (0.80, 1.73) | 0.408 | 1.09 (0.73, 1.63) | 0.668 |
P-trend | 0.410 | P-trend | 0.481 | P-trend | 0.398 | P-trend | 0.663 | |
Fruit and vegetables | ||||||||
T1 (33; 0, 53) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (150; 110, 184) | 0.77 (0.45, 1.32) | 0.346 | 0.76 (0.43, 1.32) | 0.327 | 1.01 (0.69, 1.48) | 0.953 | 0.99 (0.67, 1.46) | 0.962 |
T3 (340; 292, 482) | 0.43 (0.24, 0.76) | 0.004* | 0.40 (0.22, 0.73) | 0.003* | 0.84 (0.58, 1.22) | 0.370 | 0.83 (0.56, 1.23) | 0.362 |
P-trend | 0.004* | P-trend | 0.003* | P-trend | 0.358 | P-trend | 0.351 | |
Grains | ||||||||
T1 (182; 99, 212) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (360; 312, 400) | 0.92 (0.54, 1.57) | 0.757 | 0.98 (0.56, 1.71) | 0.958 | 1.04 (0.72, 1.50) | 0.842 | 0.98 (0.67, 1.44) | 0.941 |
T3 (547; 479, 642) | 0.76 (0.44, 1.33) | 0.342 | 0.84 (0.46, 1.53) | 0.572 | 1.09 (0.75, 1.58) | 0.637 | 1.01 (0.68, 1.49) | 0.974 |
P-trend | 0.347 | P-trend | 0.586 | P-trend | 0.636 | P-trend | 0.974 | |
Unadjusted | Model 2b | Unadjusted | Model 2b | |||||
RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | RRR (95% CI) | P | |
Fast food and savoury snacks | ||||||||
T1 (No intake) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (72; 50, 100) | 0.80 (0.45, 1.44) | 0.469 | 0.76 (0.41, 1.41) | 0.389 | 1.02 (0.70, 1.50) | 0.912 | 0.95 (0.64, 1.40) | 0.782 |
T3 (231; 174, 316) | 1.05 (0.58, 1.87) | 0.878 | 1.15 (0.61, 2.16) | 0.656 | 1.61 (1.09, 2.38) | 0.016* | 1.46 (0.96, 2.20) | 0.076 |
P-trend | 0.953 | P-trend | 0.866 | P-trend | 0.025* | P-trend | 0.120 | |
Desserts and sweet snacks | ||||||||
T1 (No intake) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (45; 27, 68) | 0.79 (0.47, 1.35) | 0.393 | 0.79 (0.46, 1.37) | 0.407 | 0.99 (0.70, 1.41) | 0.970 | 0.94 (0.65, 1.34) | 0.726 |
T3 (189; 143, 296) | 0.80 (0.43, 1.51) | 0.502 | 0.89 (0.45, 1.75) | 0.738 | 1.43 (0.95, 2.14) | 0.086 | 1.29 (0.84, 1.98) | 0.248 |
P-trend | 0.397 | P-trend | 0.582 | P-trend | 0.126 | P-trend | 0.357 | |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | ||||||||
T1 (No intake) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (210; 150, 250) | 0.93 (0.53, 1.63) | 0.800 | 0.91 (0.51, 1.63) | 0.753 | 1.09 (0.75, 1.58) | 0.660 | 1.04 (0.71, 1.54) | 0.820 |
T3 (500; 397, 700) | 0.95 (0.56, 1.61) | 0.858 | 0.98 (0.56, 1.71) | 0.933 | 0.95 (0.66, 1.36) | 0.782 | 0.84 (0.58, 1.23) | 0.379 |
P-trend | 0.841 | P-trend | 0.897 | P-trend | 0.833 | P-trend | 0.419 | |
Carbohydrate-rich foodsc | ||||||||
T1 (363; 248, 450) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | (reference) | ||||
T2 (621; 564, 707) | 0.71 (0.40, 1.28) | 0.256 | 0.68 (0.37, 1.24) | 0.206 | 1.11 (0.76, 1.62) | 0.593 | 0.99 (0.67, 1.48) | 0.978 |
T3 (979; 852, 1207) | 0.73 (0.40, 1.33) | 0.309 | 0.71 (0.35, 1.43) | 0.336 | 1.41 (0.96, 2.08) | 0.084 | 1.20 (0.77, 1.87) | 0.430 |
P-trend | 0.282 | P-trend | 0.293 | P-trend | 0.093 | P-trend | 0.452 |
CI, confidence interval; IQR, inter-quartile range; RRR, relative risk ratio; T1, tertile 1; T2, tertile 2; T3, tertile 3
Effect estimates for energy intake are per 500 kcal increment, for macronutrients are per 5% substitution for another macronutrient, and for food groups are per one tertile increase in median intake (P<0.05 with asterisk)
Model 1 adjusted for maternal energy intake only
Model 2 adjusted for maternal energy intake, age, ethnicity, education, income, smoking status, alcohol intake, physical activity, parity and gestational diabetes mellitus.
The combined sum of intakes from grains, desserts and sweet snacks, and sugar-sweetened beverages.