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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Aug 13.
Published in final edited form as: Eur J Nutr. 2018 Feb 13:10.1007/s00394-018-1623-3. doi: 10.1007/s00394-018-1623-3

Table 3.

Associations of maternal energy, macronutrients and food groups intakes with gestational weight gain status in 960 women of the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study

Reference group: Adequate (n=231) Inadequate (n=114) Excessive (n=615)
Model 1a Model 2b Model 1a Model 2b
Energy and Macronutrients RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P
Energy 0.92 (0.76, 1.11) 0.380 0.88 (0.72, 1.07) 0.206 1.10 (0.97, 1.24) 0.078 1.10 (0.97, 1.25) 0.151
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Fat 0.90 (0.76, 1.07) 0.253 0.87 (0.72, 1.04) 0.119 1.13 (1.01, 1.28) 0.038* 1.14 (1.00, 1.29) 0.042*
Substitution of Carbohydrate for Protein 0.89 (0.66, 1.19) 0.423 0.88 (0.65, 1.19) 0.930 1.00 (0.82, 1.22) 0.978 0.95 (0.77, 1.17) 0.619
Substitution of Protein for Fat 0.85 (0.60, 1.23) 0.398 0.81 (0.56, 1.18) 0.278 1.08 (0.84, 1.38) 0.547 1.15 (0.89, 1.49) 0.181
Unadjusted Model 2b Unadjusted Model 2b
Food groups, g (Median; IQR) RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P
Animal-based protein foods
         T1 (48; 0, 77) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (146; 124, 171) 0.72 (0.42, 1.25) 0.250 0.83 (0.46, 1.47) 0.517 0.85 (0.59, 1.23) 0.398 0.87 (0.59, 1.27) 0.471
         T3 (266; 233, 321) 0.90 (0.52, 1.57) 0.722 1.11 (0.60, 2.05) 0.740 1.06 (0.73, 1.55) 0.751 1.03 (0.68, 1.55) 0.891
P-trend 0.706 P-trend 0.746 P-trend 0.750 P-trend 0.891
Plant-based protein foods
         T1 (No intake) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (15; 10, 22) 0.69 (0.34, 1.40) 0.302 0.65 (0.31, 1.35) 0.251 1.02 (0.64, 1.61) 0.942 0.97 (0.61, 1.55) 0.901
         T3 (76; 50, 111) 0.41 (0.23, 0.75) 0.003* 0.40 (0.22, 0.75) 0.004* 0.70 (0.49, 0.99) 0.046* 0.66 (0.46, 0.94) 0.024*
P-trend 0.003* P-trend 0.003* P-trend 0.059 P-trend 0.031*
Dairy products
         T1 (No intake) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (200; 150, 250) 1.00 (0.57, 1.74) 0.996 0.96 (0.54, 1.70) 0.894 0.95 (0.66, 1.38) 0.807 0.93 (0.64, 1.35) 0.709
         T3 (450; 350, 500) 1.27 (0.72, 2.24) 0.415 1.24 (0.68, 2.25) 0.490 1.18 (0.80, 1.73) 0.408 1.09 (0.73, 1.63) 0.668
P-trend 0.410 P-trend 0.481 P-trend 0.398 P-trend 0.663
Fruit and vegetables
         T1 (33; 0, 53) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (150; 110, 184) 0.77 (0.45, 1.32) 0.346 0.76 (0.43, 1.32) 0.327 1.01 (0.69, 1.48) 0.953 0.99 (0.67, 1.46) 0.962
         T3 (340; 292, 482) 0.43 (0.24, 0.76) 0.004* 0.40 (0.22, 0.73) 0.003* 0.84 (0.58, 1.22) 0.370 0.83 (0.56, 1.23) 0.362
P-trend 0.004* P-trend 0.003* P-trend 0.358 P-trend 0.351
Grains
         T1 (182; 99, 212) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (360; 312, 400) 0.92 (0.54, 1.57) 0.757 0.98 (0.56, 1.71) 0.958 1.04 (0.72, 1.50) 0.842 0.98 (0.67, 1.44) 0.941
         T3 (547; 479, 642) 0.76 (0.44, 1.33) 0.342 0.84 (0.46, 1.53) 0.572 1.09 (0.75, 1.58) 0.637 1.01 (0.68, 1.49) 0.974
P-trend 0.347 P-trend 0.586 P-trend 0.636 P-trend 0.974
Unadjusted Model 2b Unadjusted Model 2b
RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P RRR (95% CI) P
Fast food and savoury snacks
         T1 (No intake) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (72; 50, 100) 0.80 (0.45, 1.44) 0.469 0.76 (0.41, 1.41) 0.389 1.02 (0.70, 1.50) 0.912 0.95 (0.64, 1.40) 0.782
         T3 (231; 174, 316) 1.05 (0.58, 1.87) 0.878 1.15 (0.61, 2.16) 0.656 1.61 (1.09, 2.38) 0.016* 1.46 (0.96, 2.20) 0.076
P-trend 0.953 P-trend 0.866 P-trend 0.025* P-trend 0.120
Desserts and sweet snacks
         T1 (No intake) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (45; 27, 68) 0.79 (0.47, 1.35) 0.393 0.79 (0.46, 1.37) 0.407 0.99 (0.70, 1.41) 0.970 0.94 (0.65, 1.34) 0.726
         T3 (189; 143, 296) 0.80 (0.43, 1.51) 0.502 0.89 (0.45, 1.75) 0.738 1.43 (0.95, 2.14) 0.086 1.29 (0.84, 1.98) 0.248
P-trend 0.397 P-trend 0.582 P-trend 0.126 P-trend 0.357
Sugar-sweetened beverages
         T1 (No intake) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (210; 150, 250) 0.93 (0.53, 1.63) 0.800 0.91 (0.51, 1.63) 0.753 1.09 (0.75, 1.58) 0.660 1.04 (0.71, 1.54) 0.820
         T3 (500; 397, 700) 0.95 (0.56, 1.61) 0.858 0.98 (0.56, 1.71) 0.933 0.95 (0.66, 1.36) 0.782 0.84 (0.58, 1.23) 0.379
P-trend 0.841 P-trend 0.897 P-trend 0.833 P-trend 0.419
Carbohydrate-rich foodsc
         T1 (363; 248, 450) (reference) (reference) (reference) (reference)
         T2 (621; 564, 707) 0.71 (0.40, 1.28) 0.256 0.68 (0.37, 1.24) 0.206 1.11 (0.76, 1.62) 0.593 0.99 (0.67, 1.48) 0.978
         T3 (979; 852, 1207) 0.73 (0.40, 1.33) 0.309 0.71 (0.35, 1.43) 0.336 1.41 (0.96, 2.08) 0.084 1.20 (0.77, 1.87) 0.430
P-trend 0.282 P-trend 0.293 P-trend 0.093 P-trend 0.452

CI, confidence interval; IQR, inter-quartile range; RRR, relative risk ratio; T1, tertile 1; T2, tertile 2; T3, tertile 3

Effect estimates for energy intake are per 500 kcal increment, for macronutrients are per 5% substitution for another macronutrient, and for food groups are per one tertile increase in median intake (P<0.05 with asterisk)

a

Model 1 adjusted for maternal energy intake only

b

Model 2 adjusted for maternal energy intake, age, ethnicity, education, income, smoking status, alcohol intake, physical activity, parity and gestational diabetes mellitus.

c

The combined sum of intakes from grains, desserts and sweet snacks, and sugar-sweetened beverages.