Table 4.

Direct, indirect and total effects of parental education on reading achievement.

Model pathways	Boys			Girls
	Estimated effect	95% CI		Estimated effect	95% CI
	Lower	upper	Lower	upper
DIRECT EFFECT
PE → RA	0.118*	0.017	0.232	0.137**	0.046	0.259
INDIRECT EFFECTS
PE → HM → RA	−0.008	−0.085	0.019	−0.045*	−0.237	−0.002
PE → LA → RA	−0.006	−0.054	0.010	0.012	−0.012	0.085
PE → PCC → RA	0.031	−0.013	0.157	0.037*	0.001	0.168
PE → PCA → RA	0.013	−0.027	0.075	−0.030	−0.151	0.037
PE → PS → RA	−0.009	−0.081	0.012	0.005	−0.042	0.069
PE → PEX → RA	0.001	−0.045	0.040	0.004	−0.021	0.024
PE → PEX → HM → RA	0	−0.015	0.015	0.003	−0.002	0.020
PE → PEX → LA → RA	0	−0.007	0.009	0.001	−0.001	0.008
PE → PEX → PCC → RA	0.025**	0.006	0.085	0.005*	0.001	0.021
PE → PEX → PCA → RA	0.002	−0.002	0.017	−0.002	−0.014	0.003
PE → PEX → PS → RA	−0.003	−0.021	0.004	0	−0.004	0.007
Total effect	0.164**	0.068	0.263	0.126**	0.054	0.201

PE, parental education; FI, family income; PEX, parental expectation; HM, home monitoring; LA, learning assistance; PCC, parent-child communication; PCA, parent-child activity; PS, parent-school contact; RA, reading achievement.

^*p < 0.05;

^**p < 0.01.