Table 1.
Summary of results.
| Species | Origin | Psychopharmacological effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| HALLUCINOGENIC FISH | |||
| a) Clown fish and damselfish (sp. Abudefduf septemfasciatus; commonly called “Banded sergeant”) b) Rabbitfish (sp. Siganus argenteus; sp. Siganus corallinus; sp. Siganus luridus; sp. Siganus rivulatus; sp. Siganus spinus) c) Sea bream (sp. Sarpa salpa, commonly called ‘Salema’) d) Sea chub (sp. Kyphosus inerascens; sp. Kyphosus vaigiensis; Kyphosus bigibbus) e) Surgeon fish (sp. Acanthurus triostegus, commonly called ‘Convict surgeonfish’) f) Goatfish (sp. Mulloidichthys flavolineatus; sp. Upeneus taeniopterus) g) Mullet (sp. Migil cephalus; sp. Neomyxus leuciscus) h) Groupers (sp. Epinephelus corallicola, commonly called ‘Coral grouper’) |
South Africa and Hawaiian and Norfolk Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Sarpa salpa originates from temperate and tropical areas, from the Atlantic coast of Africa extending to the Mediterranean Sea, particularly near to Spanish coasts; occasionally found around the British coastline. |
Fish contain hallucinogenic substances. If ingested raw: may induce hallucinatory and onyroid effects such as vivid/ terrifying auditory and visual hallucinations, dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination and mental depression, terror and nightmares, itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness, rarely abdominal distress. If orally ingested: “Sarpa salpa” fish may produce vivid auditory and visual hallucinations. |
(18–22) |
| Sea chubs from the genus Kyphosus, supposed to be K. Fuscus or more likely K. Vaigiensis | Norfolk Island, between Australia and New Zealand | Hallucinations and ‘dreadful nightmares’ | (18) |
| Urolophus jamaicensis species | The Caribbean and Colombia | Entheogen/intoxicant/inebriating and aphrodisiac effects originating from stingrays' venom | (23) |
| Siganus spinus | Waters around Réunion, South Atlantic | Psychedelic effects | (24) |
| Mulloides flavolineatus | Hawaii | Psychedelic effects | (24) |
| Tetraodontidae include puffers, balloon fish, blowfish, bubble fish, globefish, swellfish, toadfish, and toadies. | Tropical regions of South America, Africa and South East Asia | If orally ingested: poisonous puffer fish can cause a slight numbness of the lips and tongue, followed by increasing paresthesia in the face and extremities, sensations of lightness or floating. Headache, epigastric pain/nausea/diarrhea and/or vomiting may also occur. Reeling or difficulty in walking have been reported. The second stage of intoxication includes increasing paralysis, respiratory distress, altered speech, dyspnea, cyanosis, and hypotension. Whilst paralysis increases, convulsions, mental impairment, cardiac arrhythmia and death may occur. | (25, 26) |
| Fugu | Japan | Stimulant and aphrodisiac effects If orally ingesting a non-lethal dose (i.e.,<8 μg per kg body weight): tingling in the lips, fingers, and toes, and extremities may occur. If orally ingesting a lethal dose (i.e., >8 μg per kg body weight): numbness, anesthesia, paresthesia, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, muscle paralysis and respiratory insufficiency may occur. |
(27, 28) |
| Somniosus microcephalus | North Atlantic and Artic Oceans | If orally ingested: may cause diarrhea/ vomiting/ hallucinations/ numbness. It may cause a state of near-death for several days, while the subject remains conscious. | (29) |
| Sea sponges such as Smenospongia aurea | Caribbean Sea | Psychedelic effects | (30–32) |
| Sea sponges such as S. echina | Caribbean Sea | Psychedelic effects | (30–32) |
| Sea sponges such as erongula rigida | Western Atlantic Ocean: Florida, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean | Psychedelic effects | (30–32) |
| PSYCHEDELIC AMPHIBIANS | |||
| Bufo alvarius and Bufo marinus | Mesoamerica | Used as ritual intoxicants owing to their viscous milky-white venom that contains bufotenin and bufotoxin. If orally ingested: Bufo toad venom can be fatal. Single deep inhalations of vaporized venom can produce intense and transient psychoactive effects mainly auditory and visual hallucinations. |
(33) |
| Bufo marinus | North America |
B. Marinus venom was used as “Zombie's powder”. If orally ingested: Bufo toad venom can be fatal. Single deep inhalations of vaporized venom can produce intense and transient psychoactive effects mainly auditory and visual hallucinations. |
(34, 35) |
| B. Alvarius | The Sonoran Desert an area of California across the southern half of Arizona and South Mexico. | It contains the enzyme O-methyl-transferase, which converts bufotenin (5-OH-DMT) to the potent hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT. The skin also contains bufotenin analogs. If orally ingested: Bufo toad venom can be fatal. Single deep inhalations of vaporized venom can produce intense and transient psychoactive effects mainly auditory and visual hallucinations. |
(36, 37) |
| Phillomedusa bicolor | The Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon | Buccal absorption of opioid peptides scraped from the skin may induce rapid pulse/incontinence/vomiting, a state of listlessness and euphoria. | (37, 38) |
| PSYCHEDELIC ANTS | |||
| Red harvester ants (e.g., Pogonomyrmex californicus) | South and South Central California | Oral ingestion of live ants may cause hallucinogenic and/or mind-altering effects. | (39, 40) |