Table 1.

Measures Used in the Analysis

Construct Measured	How Variable was Created for Analysis
Ecological momentary assessment (EMA)	Multiple daily EMA surveys were completed by parents over eight days. iPad minis were provided to parents to enter responses to the EMA surveys during the eight-day observation period. Standardized EMA data collection protocols from prior studies⁸ were used in the study including: (1) signal contingent, (2) event contingent, and (3) end-of-day EMA recordings.⁸ For the current analysis, only the event contingent recordings were used. Event contingent recordings were self-initiated by parents whenever they shared an eating occasion with the child. Parents were asked to fill out information about the type of food served at the meal, what the child actually ate, parent feeding practices used, child eating behaviors, meal atmosphere, food preparation and planning, and other meal logistics (e.g., who was at the meal, how long it lasted). To ensure that participants would fill out meal surveys throughout the day even if they forget to self-initiate an event (i.e., meal) contingent survey, there was a question at the beginning of each of the signal contingent surveys that asked the parent if they had eaten a meal recently with their child that they hadn’t filled out a survey for yet (i.e., event contingent/meal survey). If they said yes, parents were routed to the meal survey (i.e., event contingent) first and then brought back the finish the signal contingent survey. All EMA responses were time-stamped, which allowed for understanding temporality of associations. Participants’ were assigned additional days of EMA if several EMA prompts were missed within a day to obtain a minimum of eight full days of EMA data with at least four complete EMA responses per day (i.e., at least 2 signal contingent responses; at least 1 event contingent response; 1 end-of-day response).
Parent feeding practices	Parent restriction and pressure-to-eat parent feeding practices were measured during event contingent (i.e., meal occasions) EMA surveys using two items modeled after the Child Feeding Questionnaire.²³ Parent restriction (i.e., Did you have to make sure [child’s name] didn’t eat too much food at this meal?) and pressure-to-eat (i.e., Did you have to encourage [child’s name] to eat more food at this meal?) feeding practices at meal occasions were measured as a dichotomous variable (0 – “No”, 1 – “Yes”). All breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacking meal occasions were included for analysis.
Foods served at meals	Specific foods served at meals were measured during event contingent (i.e., meal occasions) EMA surveys. Parents were asked which foods were served at the meal, based on a pre-existing measure of meal healthfulness.²⁴ Parents could select all the food categories that applied. Options included: fruit, vegetables, whole grains, refined grains, dairy, meat proteins, beans/eggs/seeds (labeled non-meat proteins), sugary drinks, cakes/cookies, or candy. Cakes/cookies and candy were combined into a single group. Presence or absence of the food at a meal was evaluated as a dichotomous variable.
Foods pressured or restricted	If parents endorsed pressuring or restricting their child during the meal, parents were asked in the same event contingent survey which specific foods served at the meal they pressured their child to eat (i.e., What food did you have to encourage [child’s name] to eat more of?), or restricted their child from eating (i.e., What food did you have to make sure [child’s name] didn't eat too much of?).
Meal characteristics	Characteristics of the meal occasion were measured during event contingent EMA surveys. Parents were asked about the children who attended the meal (i.e., target child, older/younger siblings, other family members, non-family members), the adults who attended the meal (i.e., primary parent, other caregiver, other family members, non-family members), and the number of children and adults present at the meal. Parents were also asked about who prepared the meal (i.e., self, partner, child, another adult in household, other person, food establishment), the type of foods served (i.e., fast food/take-out, pre-prepared foods (e.g., macaroni and cheese, frozen meals) or purchased snacks (e.g., chips, cereal), homemade/freshly prepared (including fresh fruits and vegetables), where the meal took place (i.e., around a table/counter, on couch in living room, scattered throughout house, standing up, in the car, at a restaurant), and the reason specific foods were served (i.e., too tired to cook, it was quick and easy, it was a planned meal, it was available at restaurant, it was a healthy option, desire to avoid conflict, child requested a specific food/meal, child/family likes, the food was available, stressful day/busy schedule). ^20,25 Event contingent questions also asked about the emotional atmosphere of the meal (i.e, chaotic, rushed, tense, relaxed, enjoyable, neutral), and the activities engaged in during a meal (i.e., conversation, watching TV or TV on in background, playing a video game, using a cell phone, table or computer, reading/looking at a book, listening to headphones).