Fig. 1.

Association of risk factors for asthma development within age exposure windows. The four age exposure windows are prenatal, 0–1, < 5, and 5–13 years. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals are shown ranked by effect size and directionality. References used to determine point estimates for this figure: smoking, secondhand [69]; gas stove cooking [96]; physical activity, inadequate [64]; pets, cats [57]; probiotics [97]; omega-3 fatty acids [98]; H. pylori [99]; pets, dogs [57]; food sensitization, ≤ 2 years [77]; rhinovirus induced wheezing, ≤ 3 years [24]; obesity [65]; overweight [65]; traffic pollution [100]; allergic rhinitis, mold [101]; fruit intake, adequate [102]; vegetable intake, adequate [102]; RSV infection, infant [23]; acetaminophen, infant [103]; antibiotic use, infant [45]; breastfeeding [88]; smoking, prenatal [70]; infection, antenatal [104]; prenatal maternal stress [105]; acetaminophen, prenatal [103]; antibiotic use, prenatal [44]; cesarean section [37]; preterm delivery [106]; folic acid, maternal [107]; vitamin E, maternal intake [92]; vitamin D, sufficient in utero level [108]