Fig. 1.

Spatial confinement of enzymes utilizing colloidal lignin particles. a Scheme of the enzyme immobilization process comprising (i) Adsorption of cationic lignin on CLPs to yield c-CLPs. (ii) Adsorption of hydrolases on c-CLPs. (iii) Entrapment of enzyme-c-CLP complexes in calcium alginate hydrogel, and (iv) Consolidation of the alginate beads by evaporation of water under ambient conditions. b Photographic, c TEM, and d AFM images of CLPs. Scale bars: a = 1 mm, c, d = 50 nm. e ζ-potentials of the biomaterials as a function of pH. Error bars represent two standard deviations from the mean values (three measurements on a single replicate, except for Catlig six measurements on two replicates). f ζ-potential distributions of CLPs and c-CLPs