Table 1.
Population characteristics by consumption category (quintile) of each of sugars from liquids, sugars from solids, free sugars and non-free sugars (%TEI); The Fenland Study, UK (n = 9678).
| Sugars from liquids |
Sugars from solids |
Free sugars |
Non-free sugars |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 | Q5 | Q1 | Q5 | Q1 | Q5 | Q1 | Q5 | |
| Age (year) | 48.5 ± 7.2 | 46.1 ± 7.5* | 47.3 ± 7.5 | 48.2 ± 7.3* | 48.8 ± 7.3 | 46.7 ± 7.4* | 46.9 ± 7.4 | 48.8 ± 7.3* |
| Sex, men (%) | 38.1 | 48.6* | 56.6 | 34.3* | 39.1 | 52.28* | 64.9 | 30.8* |
| Marital status, married (%) | 60.3 | 56.4* | 57.9 | 55.7 | 58.8 | 55.5 | 57.5 | 56.4 |
| Age at completion of full-time education (year) | 18.5 ± 4.1 | 18.6 ± 3.7* | 19.1 ± 4.4 | 18.6 ± 4.2 | 19.0 ± 4.5 | 18.2 ± 3.6* | 18.4 ± 4.0 | 18.8 ± 4.3* |
| Household income level, >£40,000 per year (%) | 41.1 | 48.8* | 51.2 | 45.0 | 49.0 | 42.1* | 43.3 | 49.2* |
| Social class, managerial & professional occupations (%) | 48.8 | 52.8* | 55.1 | 53.1 | 56.0 | 47.0* | 46.2 | 56.6* |
| Smoking status, current (%) | 15.2 | 13.4* | 18.9 | 12.2* | 13.3 | 18.1* | 23.3 | 6.8* |
| Alcohol consumption (units/week) | 1.6 (0.0,5.2) | 5.4 (1.3,11.9)* | 8.5 (2.7,24.5) | 1.8 (0,5.6)* | 4.8 (1.1,9.6) | 4.1 (0.7,8.4)* | 6.4 (1.4,14.7) | 2.7 (0.7,7.5)* |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 26.9 ± 5.1 | 27.1 ± 4.8* | 27.4 ± 4.9 | 26.6 ± 5.0* | 27.0 ± 5.0 | 27.0 ± 4.9 | 27.5 ± 5.0 | 26.7 ± 5.0* |
| PAEE (kJ/kg/d) | 52.3 ± 22.3 | 55.9 ± 23.7* | 54.1 ± 22.8 | 54.7 ± 24.1 | 52.1 ± 22.1 | 57.3 ± 24.6* | 56.1 ± 24.0 | 53.7 ± 22.7* |
| Dietary exposures | ||||||||
| Energy (kJ/d) | 7816 ± 2871 | 8284 ± 2677* | 8107 ± 2784 | 8037 ± 2881* | 7217 ± 2522 | 9418 ± 3392* | 9396 ± 3480 | 7189 ± 2317* |
| Total fat (%TEI) | 34.7 ± 6.7 | 31.4 ± 5.5* | 36.2 ± 6.4 | 29.5 ± 5.38 | 33.6 ± 7.0 | 33.1 ± 5.5* | 37.4 ± 5.6 | 28.5 ± 5.0* |
| Total protein (%TEI) | 18.9 ± 4.0 | 17.1 ± 3.3* | 18.7 ± 3.9 | 17.4 ± 3.7* | 20.5 ± 3.9 | 15.5 ± 2.9* | 16.7 ± 3.8 | 19.0 ± 3.6* |
| Total carbohydrates (%TEI) | 48.0 ± 7.6 | 50.2 ± 7.3* | 41.6 ± 6.9 | 54.8 ± 5.5* | 44.9 ± 8.3 | 52.3 ± 5.8* | 44.2 ± 7.3 | 53.5 ± 6.2* |
| Total sugars (%TEI) | 22.2 ± 6.4 | 26.6 ± 6.1* | 16.6 ± 3.9 | 31.5 ± 4.7* | 19.7 ± 6.5 | 28.7 ± 5.2* | 19.4 ± 5.7 | 29.7 ± 5.3* |
| Sugars from liquids (%TEI) | 0.5 ± 0.3 | 7.0 ± 2.9* | 3.5 ± 3.2 | 2.5 ± 2.5* | 1.5 ± 1.2 | 4.9 ± 4.0* | 3.2 ± 3.1 | 2.7 ± 2.5* |
| Sugars from solids (%TEI) | 21.7 ± 6.4 | 19.5 ± 5.6* | 13.2 ± 2.4 | 28.9 ± 4.1* | 18.2 ± 6.6 | 23.8 ± 5.5* | 16.1 ± 5.2 | 26.9 ± 5.0* |
| Free sugars (%TEI) | 9.9 ± 4.7 | 15.6 ± 4.9* | 9.4 ± 4.0 | 14.3 ± 6.2* | 6.2 ± 1.4 | 19.2 ± 3.8* | 13.8 ± 5.7 | 10.2 ± 4.1* |
| Non-free sugars (%TEI) | 12.3 ± 5.9 | 10.9 ± 5.0* | 7.3 ± 2.4 | 17.2 ± 6.5* | 13.6 ± 6.3 | 9.8 ± 4.2* | 5.6 ± 1.3 | 19.5 ± 4.4* |
| Starch (%TEI) | 24.7 ± 6.2 | 22.0 ± 4.9* | 24.3 ± 6.5 | 21.3 ± 4.6* | 24.2 ± 6.6 | 21.7 ± 4.6* | 23.8 ± 5.7 | 22.1 ± 5.1* |
| Fibre, NSP (g/d) | 18.0 ± 7.7 | 16.8 ± 6.7* | 15.3 ± 6.5 | 20.1 ± 8.4* | 18.0 ± 8.2 | 17.0 ± 6.9* | 15.2 ± 6.3 | 21.0 ± 8.5* |
| Fruit (g/d) | 247 ± 223 | 247 ± 217 | 118 ± 88 | 432 ± 305* | 278 ± 246 | 218 ± 200* | 89 ± 74 | 485 ± 290* |
| Vegetables (g/d) | 270 ± 168 | 256 ± 132* | 241 ± 128 | 287 ± 180* | 292 ± 187 | 243 ± 130* | 224 ± 117 | 313 ± 190* |
| Total fish (g/d) | 42 ± 38 | 42 ± 35* | 46 ± 42 | 39 ± 31* | 48 ± 41 | 37 ± 30* | 42 ± 40 | 43 ± 33 |
| Red meat & processed meat (g/d) | 53 ± 43 | 53 ± 37* | 68 ± 51 | 39 ± 31* | 55 ± 48 | 54 ± 36 | 72 ± 49 | 37 ± 30* |
| SSB (g/d) | 4 ± 7 | 130 ± 173* | 52 ± 122 | 35 ± 90* | 9 ± 19 | 110 ± 172* | 75 ± 145 | 27 ± 73* |
| Fruit juice (g/d) | 7 ± 10 | 116 ± 123* | 54 ± 78 | 53 ± 78* | 29 ± 42 | 82 ± 111* | 51 ± 76 | 58 ± 82* |
| Plasma vitamin C (μmol/L) | 63.9 ± 23.1 | 70.9 ± 21.1* | 63.4 ± 22.1 | 71.7 ± 21.2* | 68.3 ± 21.8 | 65.8 ± 22.4* | 58.7 ± 23.2 | 75.3 ± 19.2* |
| Outcomes | ||||||||
| HbA1c (%) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7)* | 5.5 (5.3,5.7) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7) | 5.5 (5.3,5.8) | 5.5 (5.3,5.7)* |
| HOMA-IR | 1.2 (0.8,1.7) | 1.2 (0.8,2.0) | 1.3 (0.8,2.0) | 1.1 (0.7,1.7)* | 1.1 (0.8,1.7) | 1.3 (0.8,2.0) | 1.4 (0.9,2.2) | 1.4 (0.9,2.2)* |
| CRP (mg/L) | 1.34 (0.55,3.23) | 1.48 (0.62,3.41) | 1.57 (0.65,3.55) | 1.28 (0.53,3.06)* | 1.39 (0.60,3.27) | 1.50 (0.63,3.33) | 1.65 (0.65,3.55) | 1.26 (0.52,3.06)* |
| Metabolic risk z score | −0.05 ± 1.0 | 0.08 ± 1.00* | 0.16 ± 1.1 | −0.12 ± 0.96 | −0.06 ± 1.0 | 0.11 ± 0.97* | 0.26 ± 1.1 | −0.16 ± 0.98* |
* Significant p for trend (<0.05) estimated across all five consumption categories (Q1 through Q5) using ANOVA or chi-square test for independence.
Values are: mean ± SD, median (inter-quartile range) or %.
SSB include soft drinks and fruit squash/juice drink.
Metabolic risk z score: derived by summing the z-scores of the following continuous indices: waist circumference, systolic blood pressure + diastolic blood pressure, 2 h plasma glucose, fasting insulin, inverted fasting HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.
Abbreviations: C-Reactive Protein, CRP; Glycated Haemoglobin, HbA1c; Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance, HOMA-IR; Non-Starch Polysaccharide, NSP; Percent Total Energy Intake, %TEI; Physical Activity Energy Expenditure, PAEE; Quintiles, Q; Sugar Sweetened beverages, SSB.