Table 1.
Examples of foods, nutrients, and dietary patterns that influence human health linked to their effect on the gut microbiota
| Dietary element | Effect on gut microbiome | Effect on health outcomes mediated by gut microbiome | Human observational studies | Human interventional studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low FODMAP diet | Low FODMAP diet increased Actinobacteria; high FODMAP diet decreased abundance of bacteria involved in gas consumption58 | Reduced symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome56 | Yes | Yes |
| Cheese | Increased Bifidobacteria,97 98 which are known for their positive health benefits to their host through their metabolic activities.99 Decrease in Bacteroides and Clostridia, some strains of which are associated with intestinal infections98 | Potential protection against pathogens.100 Increased production of SCFA and reduced production of TMAO99 | Yes | Yes |
| Fibre and prebiotics | Increased microbiota diversity and SCFA production 22 101 102 | Reduced type 2 diabetes22 and cardiovascular disease103 | Yes | Yes |
| Artificial sweeteners | Overgrowth of Proteobacteria and Escherichia coli.104 Bacteroides, Clostridia, and total aerobic bacteria were significantly lower, and faecal pH was significantly higher47 | Induced glucose intolerance105 | No | No |
| Polyphenols (eg, from tea, coffee, berries, and vegetables such as artichokes, olives, and asparagus) | Increased intestinal barrier protectors (Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus), butyrate producing bacteria (Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Roseburia) and Bacteroides vulgatus and Akkermansia muciniphila.107 Decreased lipopolysaccharide producers (E coli and Enterobacter cloacae).106 | Gut micro-organisms alter polyphenol bioavailability resulting in reduction of metabolic syndrome markers and cardiovascular risk markers108 | Yes | Yes |
| Vegan | Very modest differences in composition and diversity in humans and strong differences in metabolomic profile compared with omnivore diet in humans50 | Some studies show benefit of vegetarian over omnivore diet,109 others fail to find a difference110 | Yes | Yes |
FODMAP=fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols; SCFA=small chain fatty acids; TMAO= trimethylamine N-oxide