Table 3.

Possible Research Questions for Each Paradigm and Data Collection Methoda

	Sample Study Question	Sample Details
Paradigm
Grounded theory	How do attending physicians make real‐time decisions about what procedures they can entrust residents to perform without supervision?	To understand the process of entrustment at the EM resident level, the researcher would conduct observations to explore the spectrum of attending practice regarding allowing residents to perform procedures independently. Individual open‐ended interviews would explore themes that impact entrustment decisions, and transcripts would be analyzed iteratively until themes emerge to guide the researcher in developing theories about how attendings make entrustment decisions.
	How do expert clinicians manage ED workflow to maximize efficiency?	To teach efficiency, educators must first understand the workflow process for those who do it well. Open‐ended flexible interviews combined with real‐time observations could illuminate behaviors and thought processes that streamline workflow in the ED. Iterative analysis of field notes and interview transcripts would allow the researcher to make comparisons between behaviors and mental constructs to generate theories about efficient practices that may be taught.
Ethnography	Do small group learning sessions yield effective support networks in the first year of medical school?	A researcher would become a member of a small learning group at the start of medical school and record observations and interactions during learning sessions and during extracurricular time for the entire year (or predefined period of time).
	What are the perceptions of EM residency applicants about the interview day, the program strengths, weaknesses, faculty?	A researcher would pose as an interviewee for each interview day at a given program and participate in applicant discussions.
Phenomenology	How do pediatric deaths influence high‐risk behaviors in EM residents?	Pediatric deaths are stress provoking events. It is possible that EM residents engage in high‐risk behaviors (e.g., excessive alcohol consumption, high‐speed driving, recreational drugs, domestic unrest, tobacco use) to quell their stress.
	How does the implementation of EHR impact faculty time spent on clinical shifts?	Did faculty attend training sessions? To what degree are faculty comfortable with technology in general? Are there support systems in place (e.g., ED scribes, 24‐hour support desk)? What are the differences in time spent with each patient? How do faculty perceive interactions with nurses, trainees before and after implementation?
Data collection method
Interviews	What are the experiences of ambulatory patients who check into the ED for moderately severe, non–life‐threatening conditions?	Questions could focus on the check‐in process, triage, personnel, waiting room experience, ED experience, disposition plan, understanding of treatment and condition, post‐ED recovery phase.
	How does pregnancy and childbirth during EM residency affect the resident, their colleagues, and the service needs of the department?	Questions relating to both pregnancy and maternity leave are important and may be viewed differently by each stakeholder group. Different interview questions would be appropriate for each of these groups and could be combined into a single study that examines the entire circumstance or could be a more in‐depth evaluation of one group only, e.g., the mother.
Observations	Do homelessness and/or substance abuse in ED patients affect interactions and treatment decisions by the EM resident?	An observer can record resident time spent, tone, types of questions asked, descriptions used during case presentation to faculty, and types of interventions offered to disenfranchised ED patients vs. highly insured or affluent patients.
	Do EM residents treat medical students who are EM bound and non‐EM bound differently?	The observer could record time spent and quality of discussion between the resident and student. In addition, the observer could note comments to colleagues by the resident after the interaction with the student.
Focus groups	How does the pregnancy and maternity leave of a coresident impact her colleagues?	Coresidents, program leaders, nurses can weigh in on areas such as increased workload, feelings of resentment or joy, observation that the new mother interacts differently with nurses and patients during or after the pregnancy.
	Are there sex differences in off‐service interactions for EM residents?	Joining together male and female EM residents, off‐service colleagues, and faculty (EM and off‐service) may reveal different attitudes and perceptions of the female experience.
Document tracing	What factors in personal statements and medical school evaluations predict “problem resident” behaviors?	Across several years (or several programs), program directors could review the personal statements, letters of recommendation, and medical school performance examinations of residents who proved to be a challenge during residency in an attempt to identify recurrent themes that may alert them when choosing future residents.
	How do pediatric patients view their visit to the ED as interpreted by their artwork?	Pediatric patients can be encouraged to draw pictures during their ED stay using materials provided. These can be evaluated for colors used, subjects present in picture, size of patient relative to others, presence of hospital personnel, etc.

^aReaders may use these suggestions to generate new studies. The authors request that this paper be referenced in the resultant work.