Table 2. PhD scientist training stages mapped to Dreyfus and Dreyfus levels of skill acquisition. Early-career scientists include researchers undertaking postdoctoral training as well as those in science positions in career pathways that involve other kinds of advanced training, e.g., on-the-job training or certification.

Dreyfus & Dreyfus	Novice	Advanced beginner	Competent	Proficient	Expert
	Rule-based behavior, limited, inflexible	Incorporates aspects of the situation	Acts consciously from long-term goals and plans	Sees situation as a whole and acts from personal conviction	Has intuitive understanding of situations, zooms in on central aspects
PhD Scientist Training Stages	Beginning PhD Student	Advanced PhD Student	PhD Graduate	Early-Career Scientist	Science Professional