Table 4.

Studies in delinquent populations: associations between plasma cortisol and delinquency.

Condition	Cortisol measurement						Interaction	References
Delinquent type	Single	Multiple	Diurnal rhythm	Daily production*	Awakening response	Stress responses
M/nV	X						↓*	Popma et al., 2007b
M/nV	X						↓**	Poustka et al., 2010
M/nV	X						↓	Dolan et al., 2001
M/nV	X						↓†	Horn et al., 2014
M/nV	X					X	↓‡	Couture et al., 2018
PP		X					↓*	Dabbs et al., 1991
PP		X					→	Feilhauer et al., 2013
ANTS			X				→₳	Gostisha et al., 2014
M/nV			X				↓	Popma et al., 2007a
VIOL			X				↓	Brewer-Smyth et al., 2004
PP			X				↓	Cima et al., 2008
VIOL				X			↓	Virkkunen, 1985
VIOL					X		↓$	Holi et al., 2006
M/nV						X	↓€	Popma et al., 2006
VIOL						X	↓€	Moss et al., 1995
VIOL						X	↑€	Soderstrom et al. (2004)
M/nV						X	↓¥	Johnson et al., 2015
M/nV						X	↓‡	Couture et al., 2008

Delinquent type. ANTS, delinquents with antisocial traits; M / nV, mixed delinquent population, committing mostly non-violent crime; PP, delinquents with psychopathic traits; VIOL, violent crime. Cortisol measurements. X, type of measurement performed; single, condition associated with a single cortisol measurement; multiple, condition associated with averaged multiple cortisol measurements; diurnal, condition associated with altered diurnal secretion rhythm; total, 24 h urinary cortisol or equivalent; awakening, diurnal increase in cortisol measured in the morning; stress response, stress response independent from aggression. Association with cortisol. ↓, delinquency associated with downregulated HPA-axis function; ↑, delinquency associated with upregulated HPA-axis function;

^*interaction with testosterone/cortisol ratio;

^**males only;

^†interactions mediated by personality and substance use disorders;

^‡interaction mediated by risk taking;

^₳, complex interactions with stress exposure;

^$interaction with psychopathic features;

^€anticipation of stress (e.g., public speaking);

^¥interaction with the number of incarcerations.