(a) Time course of prediction accuracy. Solid lines indicate prediction accuracy for V1 (red) and HVC (blue), respectively. Gray dashed line indicate significance level. Results of a single participant (participant 1) are shown as examples. (b) Mean onset latency of significant prediction accuracy for each ROI (error bars, s.d. across participants). (c) Time course of F-statistics. F-statistics are normalized to 0–1 for visibility. Vertical dashed lines indicate the onset of prediction accuracy for each ROI (red, V1; blue, HVC). Results of a single participant (participant 1) are shown as examples. (d) Mean lag of cross-correlation between the time course of prediction accuracy and F-statistics (error bars, s.d. across participants). Positive values indicate that prediction accuracy precedes the F-statistics. (e) Searchlight decoding. Cortical areas that showed significant prediction accuracy are colored. White and black enclosed areas are V1 and HVC, respectively. Results of a single participant (participant 1) are shown as an example. Results of other participants for (a), (c), and (e) are shown in S10A, S10B and S10C Fig, respectively.