Table 3.

Univariate linear regression for continuous log 24-hour average PM_2.5 (µg/m³) concentrations across cooking fuel, cooking fuel behaviors, and other sources of HAP among households in low-income urban homes in Pune, India (n = 166).

	Univariable GMR (95% CI)	p- value1
Kerosene Use	1.1 (0.8 – 1.6)	0.55
Wood Use	2.1 (1.4 – 2.9)	0.0001
Combined Fuel Types
LPG/electricity only	REF
Kerosene (no biomass)	1.2 (0.8 – 1.8)	0.41
Wood (no kerosene)	2.2 (1.4 – 3.2)	0.0002
Both kerosene and wood	2.0 (1.0 – 4.2)	0.06
Time using LPG
None	REF
< 1 hour	--	--
≥ 1 hour	0.6 (0.4 – 0.9)	0.01
Time using Kerosene
None	REF
< 1 hour	1.1 (0.6 – 1.9)	0.77
≥ 1 hour	1.1 (0.7 – 1.8)	0.59
Time using Wood
None	REF
< 1 hour	1.6 (0.9 – 2.8)	0.14
≥ 1 hour	2.4 (1.5 – 3.6)	0.0001
Log volume of cooking area	0.9 (0.8 – 1.0)	0.004
Door always open while cooking	1.2 (0.9 – 1.7)	0.24
Windows always open while cooking	0.8 (0.6 – 1.1)	0.10
Construction material of the kitchen
All corrugated metal	REF
Roof or walls corrugated metal	0.7 (0.5 – 1.1)	0.14
All concrete or brick	0.4 (0.3 – 0.6)	< 0.0001
Construction material of kitchen (continuous)	0.6 (0.5 – 0.7)	< 0.0001
Visible gap between the roof and the top of the walls	1.9 (1.3 – 2.7)	0.001
What type of road does the house lie on
Small	REF
Medium or large	0.9 (0.6 – 1.5)	0.78
Smell others using biomass daily	1.5 (1.0 – 2.2)	0.03
Smell others using mishri daily	1.1 (0.7 – 1.8)	0.56
Self or neighbors burn trash daily	0.9 (0.5 – 1.4)	0.60
Burning incense	1.0 (0.7 – 1.3)	0.79
Use mosquito coils	1.2 (0.7 – 1.8)	0.53
Light source: Kerosene	2.0 (0.8 – 4.9)	0.12
Light source: Candles	1.0 (0.6 – 1.4)	0.81
Winter Season	1.6 (1.2 – 2.2)	0.002

¹Bolded values statistically significant at p < 0.05