Table 2.

The novel markers for nonspecific inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD).

Marker	Name	Expression	Comments	References
Novel fecal markers
HBD	Human defensin β	Epithelial and plasma cells	Peptides acting against microbe infection, correlate with inflammatory processes	[70]
	β-Glucuronidases	Mucosal cells, bacteria	Marker of inflammation	[72]
MPO	Myeloperoxidase	Granulocytes	Marker of inflammation; stool expression higher in patients with UC, compared to patients with CD; biomarker for response to treatment in patients with CD and UC	[70, 73]
M2-PK	Pyruvate kinase	Skeletal muscle, heart, brain, and proliferative tissues	Increases in colorectal carcinoma; in gut, inflammation reflects increased cell turnover; it is postulated that intestinal epithelial cells may be protected against apoptosis by the upregulation of M2-PK in CD; fecal pyruvate kinase has been suggested as a potential new marker for intestinal inflammation in children with IBD and a new predictor for inflammation and severity of pouchitis	[70]
NGAL	Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin	Ephithelial cells/neutrophilic granulocytes	Contributes to inflammation	[74, 75]
S100A12	Calgranulin C	Neutrophils/macrophages, monocytes	May reflect the presence and severity of intestinal inflammation; has a potential role on predicting relapse	[76, 77]
OPG	Osteoprotegerin	Osteoblasts, B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, bone marrow stromal cells, epithelial cells, and monocytes/macrophages	Useful marker of intestinal inflammatory severity in CD	[70, 79]
MMP	Matrix metalloproteinases	Regenerative tissues	MMPs are expressed in areas of inflammation and ulceration in the gut, and several MMPs are overexpressed in IBD	[70]
CHI3L1	3-Like chitinase	Macrophages, neutrophils, chondrocytes, and synovial cells	Highly expressed in intraepithelial neoplasia mucosa of UC	[70, 84]
HMGB	High-mobility nuclear protein	Neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells	Correlate with disease severity	[77, 85, 86]
DNA	Deoxyribonucleic acid		Fecal excretion of DNA correlates with clinical disease activity and endoscopic severity in UC	[70]
MicroRNA	Microribonucleic acid		Expression patterns have been described in intestinal biopsies collected from IBD patients with a number of specific miRNA reported to be upregulated in both CD and UC	[70]
Inflammatory markers belonging to extracellular matrix (ECM) components
sGAGs	Sulfated glycosaminoglycans	ECM components	Remodeling tissue involved in proliferation, migration and adhesion;	[87]
HA	Hyaluronian	Nonsulfated GAG; ECM component	Elevated HA deposition in the intestine tissue promotes inflammation in IBD	[88–90]
LN	Laminin	Basement membrane component	LN serum level is higher in CD than in controls and it is associated with disease activity	[91]
SDC-1	Syndecan-1	Transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan	Inflammatory marker; soluble SDC-1 levels are higher in CD patients and may contribute to the assessment of disease activity	[92]
FN	Fibronectin	ECM component	In several cases of CD, the concentration of fibronectin in the blood plasma was reduced before clinical relapse and returned to the normal range in remission	[93]
COLVII-Ab	Autoantibodies against type VII collagen	Tissues with high expression of collagen VII, including colonic epithelium	CD and UC demonstrated reactivity to type VII collagen	[94]