Table 1.
Behavioral Ethogram (Bliss-Moreau, 2017)
| Behavior | Description |
|---|---|
| States | |
| Close Social Interaction | |
| Extended Aggression | Animals bite, slap, chase, or grab at each other |
| Extended Contact | Animals are in physical contact |
| Extended Groom | Examination, picking, or licking of another animal’s fur or body |
| Extended Mount | Any instance of mounting |
| Extended Play | Continuous rough and tumble play and/or play threats, including playful chase |
| Proximity Zone | Focal animal is within the marked rectangle in front of the stimulus cage |
| Proximity | Focal animal is directly in front of the constrained animal |
| Non-Social States | |
| Nonsocial Activity | Animal remains out of all social states and Is locomotive with head up, actively engaged in the environment |
| Nonsocial Stationary | Animal remains out of all social states and Is non-locomotive with head up, actively engaged in the environment |
| Nonsocial Inactivity | Animal remains out of all social states with head down, not engaged in environment, often staring off into space |
| Extended Stereotypy | Focal animal is engaged in repetitive self-directed or motor stereotypic behavior |
| Events | |
| Communicative Signaling | |
| Affiliative | |
| Approach | Intentional movement within arm’s reach of another animal |
| Accept Approach | Animal remains within arm’s reach after the other animal approaches |
| Anogenital Exploration | Oral, visual, olfactory, or manual exploration of the other animals anogenital area |
| Contact | Physical contact between animals that is not aggressive |
| Coo | Clear, soft sounds, moderate in pitch and intensity; usually sounds like “whoooooo” |
| Follow | Intentional follow of another animal |
| Groom | Examination, picking, or licking of another animal’s fur or body |
| Grunt | Deep, muffled, low-intensity vocalization |
| Girney | Quiet, nasal whine, usually emitted during affiliative encounters |
| Lipsmack | Rapid lip movements with pursed or puckered lips, usually accompanied by smacking sounds |
| Huddle | Physical contact that involves one animal ventrally touching another animal |
| Jaw-Thrust | Rapid lipsmack and grimace and/or brow raise usually seen while the animal walks by or approaches and then leaves quickly |
| Joint Threat | Both animals threaten observer in unison |
| Mount | Mount that includes all of the following components: appropriate positioning of partner, hands on back, double foot clasp |
| Mount Attempt | Any component of a mouth that is attempted through the metal grille |
| Present Groom | Intentional, exaggerated presentation of a part of body to another animal |
| Present Neck | Presentation of neck to another animal |
| Present Rump | Rigid posture with rump and tail elevated and oriented toward another individual |
| Threat-Solicitation | Animal recruits the other animal in threatening the observer or another animal |
| Agonistic/“Aggression” | |
| Aggression | Grabbing, slapping, and biting of another animal |
| Aggressive Grunt | Low-pitched guttural sound, accompanied by a threat |
| Alarm Bark | Short, sharp sound |
| Cage Shake | Vigorous shaking of cage, or body slam against bars |
| Crooktail | Tail held up stiff in a “?” shape |
| Displacement | Physical movement in which an animal “takes the place” of another animal |
| Muzzle | Contact |
| Threat | Contains one or more of the following components: open mouth stare, head bobbing, ear flaps, bark vocalizations, or lunges |
| Submission/“Fear” | |
| Avoid | Animal leaves the area when the other animal comes near or is about to approach |
| Grimace | Exaggerated movement of lips such that lips are pulled back with teeth showing |
| Flee | Rapid, intentional movement away from another animal |
| Freeze | Stiff body posture without any movement for more than three seconds |
| Scream | High-pitched vocalization, with extreme high intensity; sounds like “eeeeeeeeee” |
| Exploration | |
| Manual | Exploration of the cage or environment with the hands |
| Oral | Exploration of the cage or environment with the mouth |
| Stress-Related | |
| Scratch | Scratches own body |
| Self-Groom | Use of hands to pick through or lick a fur or non-fur body part |
| Self-Shake | Vigorous shaking of the body |
| Tooth Grind | Repetitive audible rubbing of upper and lower teeth |
| Yawn | Yawn |
| Other | |
| Self Sex | Anogenital exploration of self |
| Stereotypic | |
| Self-Directed | Repetitive behavior acted on self, including: repetitive swaying back and forth, covering hand over eye or eye pokes, unusual holding of body part or limb, biting at oneself, self-strumming |
| Whole-Body | Repetitive motor behavior including: back flipping, hopping, twirling, swinging, or undirected movement with the same path repeated |
| Heat Twist | Animal twists neck in a dramatic display |
Note that a number of codes were not scored in the current study, since they represent social interaction with other monkeys.