Table 1.

Summary of experimental studies manipulating timing of eating among participants of normal weight.

Authors [ref]	Sample		Design	BMI/Weight	Other Outcomes
LeCheminant et al. [135]	N=27 men (completers) 20.9 years, BMI 24.4 kg/m²		Randomized crossover design: 2 wks with no EI between 1900h–0600h, 2 wks eat as usual. 1 wk washout between conditions; food not provided	−0.4 kg with nighttime restriction; +0.6 kg with usual intake	During nighttime restriction, consumed 244 fewer kcals and had greater morning hunger than during usual eating.
Hibi et al. [136]	N=11 women, 23 years, BMI 20.6 kg/m²		Randomized cross-over design, 13d with snack (192 kcal) at 1000h and 13d with same snack at 2300h, plus usual meals (not provided); assessed with respiratory chamber and oral glucose challenge test	No significant difference	Nighttime snack decreased fat oxidation, increased total and LDL cholesterol vs daytime. No differences in glucose and insulin response or energy expenditure.
Bo et al. [137]	N=20 (10 men), ages 27.6 years, BMI 23.4 kg/m²		Randomized crossover design - Single meal manipulation - ate either at 0800h or at 2000h each for 1d, 1 wk apart	Not reported	Glucose, insulin, and free fatty acid response were lower, and resting metabolic rate was higher after morning meal vs evening meal.
Bandín et al. [138]	N=22 women, 26 years, BMI 23.2 kg/m² (Cohort 1)		Randomized crossover design - EE early eating (lunch at 1300h) and LE (lunch at 1630h) for 1 wk each; three meals provided; 1 wk washout between conditions	Not reported	Lower pre-meal resting energy expenditure, fasting carbohydrate oxidation, and glucose tolerance in LE vs EE; no difference in postprandial energy expenditure.
Bandín et al. [138]	N=10 women, 26 years, BMI 22.5 kg/m² (Cohort 2)		Randomized crossover design - EE early eating (lunch at 1300h) and LE (lunch at 1630h) for 1 wk each; three meals provided; 1 wk washout between conditions	Not reported	Decreased thermal effect of food and blunted cortisol profile in LE vs EE.
Qin et al. [139]	N=7 (6 men), age 21.7 years, BMI 22.9 kg/m²	Randomized crossover design for 13d to diurnal - ate at 0700h, 1300h, 1900h with 2230h–0630h sleep-wake cycle, and nocturnal - ate at 1300h, 1900h, and ad lib snacking at night with 0130h–0830h sleep-wake cycle; no food provided, intake estimate of 2,200 - 2,600 kcals		No significant difference	Reduced peaks for melatonin and leptin, and lowered glucose and insulin response to meals in nocturnal vs diurnal eating condition.
Yoshizaki et al. [140]	N=14 men, age 21.4 years, BMI 23.1 kg/m² controls, 21.9 kg/m² early meal group	All were habitual breakfast skippers - randomized for 2 wks to receive 3 isocaloric meals (provided) either at their usual time: 1300h, 1800h, 2300h or at earlier times: 0800h, 1300h, 1800h		Not reported	Triglycerides, insulin, total and LDL cholesterol decreased in early condition; remained unchanged in usual condition. No difference in glucose, NEFAs, HDL cholesterol, HOMA-IR.
Wehrens et al. [51]	N=10 men, age 22.9 years, BMI 23.1 kg/m²	Within subjects, inpatient study; all received 3 isocaloric meals at 5-h intervals: 1. starting at 0.5h from wake time for 4d, then 2. starting at 5.5h from wake time for 6d, with 37h constant routine assessments after each		Not reported	Delay in mean acrophase of glucose and decreased mean glucose levels in late meals vs early; no differences for timing of sleep, subjective hunger, plasma melatonin, or cortisol.

Notes: Ages and BMI values are presented as means. BMI - body mass index; wk - week; EI - energy intake; h - hour; d - day; LDL- low-density lipoprotein; EE - early eating; LE - late eating; NEFA - non-esterified fatty acids; HDL - high-density lipoprotein; HOMA-IR - homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance